Worthy of a Queen: Marie Antoinette's Bridal Gifts

The wedding between the French Dauphin, Louis Auguste, and the Austrian arch-duchess, Marie Antoinette, was an immense event in the 1770's. On a political scale, it brought the hereditary enemies of France and the Austrian Empire together as allies. At Versailles, the court once more had an official leading lady which it had sorely lacked since the deaths of Marie Leszczynska and Marie Josèphe of Saxony. And for the two principal characters, it would impact the rest of their lives.

Naturally, such an event had to be augmented by suitable presents for the young dauphine. On their wedding day - 16 May 1770 - the ceremony took place in the morning. In the afternoon, the new Dauphine of France was taken to her official chambers where she was presented with the gifts from her new grandfather-in-law.

A gorgeously carved cabinet was presented which was filled to the brim with priceless jewellery and precious stones. The cabinet itself was a worthy present. It stands (for it still occupies a place in the queen's bedchamber) 1,83 cm tall and has a width of a 1,07 cm; the lining is of red velvet. The marvellous piece was the result of the combined effort of Bélanger, Bocciardi, Evalde and Gouthière. The Duc d'Aumont had found the architect Bélanger who built the piece of furniture but the Duc did not count on the expense. He had specifically stated that the piece was not to exceed 8.000 lives - however, the finished product amounted to 22.653 livres - or around 1.000.000 euros.

The cabinet would be sold off in 1790 by the National Assembly.

The design for the original cabinet

The contents of the dauphine's new cabinet were not all meant for her. She was expected to distribute the abundance of snuff-boxes, watches, cases of gold and enamel (adorned with diamonds), jewellery, scissors, golden  flacons and perfume bottles. These were duly given by the bride to her attendants and were kept by them as a momentum of the day. Amongst the gifts given to the entourage of the dauphine were 32 watches; of these some were given to the Comtesse de Noailles, the Duc d'Aumont, the Marquise de Duras, the Duc de Villequier etc. Each recipient was carefully chosen by the Director of the Menus-Plaisirs and was meticulously noted down months prior to the wedding.

In total, the cost of these presents amounted to 160.076 livres - note, that his is not including the cost of the presents personally provided by the king for Marie Antoinette herself.

For the dauphine herself, Marie Antoinette received several beautifully adorned fans. One of them was encrusted with diamonds and emeralds which glistened marvellously in the candlelight. She also received a watch and chain studded with diamonds and in-laid with blue enamel, diamonds and pearls which had belonged to Marie Josèphe and a superb pearl necklace brought to France by Anne of Austria. As the First Lady of Versailles, the king also granted her several parures which had belonged to Marie Leszczynska.

These two pieces belongs to the Victoria and Albert
museum (which also produced this photo). These were
produced in 1770 and bears a monogram of MA -
historically, these have been associated with
Marie Antoinette

Another present to be found within the cabinet was a gold bow with Marie Antoinette's monogram written in precious stones. It was estimated to be worth 22.000 livres.

The king was not the only one who showered the newly-weds with presents. Both Louis and Marie were the recipients of countless gifts from the royal family and the aristocracy. The Princesse de Lamballe presented the young Austrian with a cloak which was embroidered with allegorical figures representing love, fertility and fecundity. 

Not only persons strove to pay tribute to the future queen. The porcelain factory Sèvres had crafted another jewellery case of a smaller size, but more delicate taste which also survives to this day. The sides are adorned with the signature porcelain plaques painted with pink flowers.

It should be said that Marie Antoinette did not arrive in France empty-handed. Her mother, Maria Theresia of Austria, had also done her bit to show the extravagance of the Austrian court. For instance, Marie Antoinette's wedding gown was studded with diamonds which the Empress had supplied her daughter with. Another present was a pair of paintings by the Dutch Jan van Huysum depicting flowers, insects and fruits. She would later give them to the Princesse de Lamballe. 

The cost of the dauphine's wedding presents were of a truly royal proportion. A total of 162.576 livres was spent by the jewellers, watchmakers and craftsmen - in today's money? 8.000.000 euro or 7,4 million pounds.

Louis XVI: Awkward But Regal

The last king of Versailles could never boast of having inherited his grand-father's remarkably good looks. Whereas Louis XV had been generally thought to be the handsomest man at his own court, Louis XVI was not so fortunate.

The king's silhouette was not one that blended well with his surroundings. He was not a short man (for the time period) but lacked the grace and elegance of bearing which otherwise characterized the aristocracy. When he walked, he tramped heavily. One observer claimed that he seemed more like "a peasant behind his plough" than the king of one of the greatest powers in Europe.

The impression of the king was not aided by the fact that he had a remarkably poor posture - although without slouching. Naturally shy and timid, Louis had spent the majority of his childhood attempting not to draw attention to himself. As such, he rarely stood with that confident stance expected from a leader. His page, Hézecques, admitted that he did look well when he sat upon his throne. Yet, that same page vehemently denied the rumours that the king slumped forward rather than standing erect. It would seem that even when he stood up straight, his figure could not quite command the necessary respect. 

A detail of the king in his full royal regalia - the delicately
blue eyes, the good nose, the small but plump lips and
 the rounded chin are all very clear

The king's face expressed kindness rather than authority; nevertheless, it was admitted (even by his critics) that he had a certain regality over his facial features. It is hardly a wonder that his courtiers did not know what to think of their new sovereign. His physical appearance seems to have been contradictory: an awkward body but a regal face, a king of France but a sluggish walk.

His face was not ugly but not attractive per se. His forehead was somewhat receding and his head was held aloft by a remarkably thick and short neck. There is one trait that recurs in most contemporary descriptions of the king: a certain melancholia. Even when he had just ascended to the throne there was something about his features that exuded just that - melancholy. 

Louis XVI suffered tremendously from short-sightedness. He was one of the unfortunate ones whose short-sightedness worsened considerably through his life.  His eyes were a lighter blue (another difference from the dark eyes of Louis XV) and the eye-lids were quite heavy.

The king's sight also had an impact on the furniture he commissioned. In order to avoid the every-day unpleasant encounters with sharp corners, his furniture was often rather rounded. By 1788-89, he was described as being so afflicted by his short-sightedness that he could not recognize people standing three paces from him. 

Judging from this portrait, it would seem
that the king's blonde hair from his
childhood has faded into a slightly
darker tone

Louis' poor eye-sight did nothing to make his movements more graceful. Understandably enough, his sight had made him nervous of walking into things - particularly considering that eyes were constantly on him. Not even the trappings of power could adorn him with a more elegant air. When he wore a sword by his side, he would occasionally stumble over it and according to the Marquise de La Tour du Pin "he never knew what to do with his hat".

Notwithstanding his short-sightedness, his eyes were quite fine. A very peculiar shade of blue whose shade it was said that no painter ever truly captured, they had a gentle and kind expression. 

Ever since his early childhood, Louis had struggle with his weight. He had been over-weight for years which certainly did not help his movements either. However, he was not the morbidly obese man that history usually portrays him as. When he ascended to the throne, he was well-built but not over-weight. Particularly his legs were admired at this point in life. Once he got older and gained weight, he could never rid himself of that swaying walk which most Bourbon-rulers had.

This portrait of Louis shows his rather
corpulent nature

Another feature that was much affected by his fluctuating weight was his chin. It was strong, but round; that roundness was often accentuated by a double-chin when he was in his heavier periods. As for his nose, that was one facial feature which seems to have passed the inspection of his eagle-eyed courtiers. It was well-proportioned to the rest of his face.

The king's teeth were uneven which made his smile somewhat awkward. However, it should be remembered that even today most people have uneven teeth and it is hardly a sure sign of unattractiveness. Also, his lips were full and plump which was not unbecoming to him.

The king's hair was blonde when he was a child. Yet, when the fashions dictated that wigs were worn the majority of the time, it often made little difference what colour a person's hair was. Still, he was the nightmare of the royal coiffeurs. The reason was that he cared very little about his physical appearance and never took much care of his carefully arranged locks.

The king's figure appears large but not obese
- as he was described when he was in
his thinner periods

It was particularly this indifference to his appearance that made his courtiers embarrassed. Such a court, where fashion and personal looks was vital, could not look favourably on a king who preferred simple suits to the elaborate ensembles of silk, laces and embroidery.

History has much maligned the figure of Louis XVI. He has been painted as both ugly and stupid; neither of which was true. Although, he was never considered handsome, Louis had one of those faces that exudes kindness and simplicity, but lacked the grace of the ideal French monarch - and his contemporaries never forgave him for it.

The House of La Trémoille

The family of La Trémoille descended from Poitou where they had been a firm part of the nobility since before the 11th century. Five centuries later, the family had reached the top of the French aristocracy where they married into families that were closely related to the royal family including the Bourbon-Conti.

Ducs and Duchesse de La Trémoille 

1) Henri III de La Trémoille & Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne

Henri embodied several illustrious titles besides that of Duc de La Trémoille; he had 25 aristocratic titles in total, including those of Prince de Talmont and Comte de Laval.

He had been a Protestant until 1628 when he converted himself and his children to Catholicism. He served in the army until he was wounded in the knee during the Siege of Carignan. Then he turned to a career in politics where he obtained the post of grand maître to the king. He would withdraw from his official duties in 1668 when he became seriously ill; the charge went to his eldest son and heir.

Marie held considerable influence in her own name; in particular, she took control over the areas Laval and Vitré. Unlike her husband, she never converted to Catholicism and convinced Henri - once he had taken up the crucifix - to continue to support the Protestant population's right to exercise their religion. Prior to her marriage, she had served as a maid-of-honour to the Duchess of Wilhelmsburg.

Marie

Henri III

The couple had 6 children:

• Henri Charles, Duc de La Trémoille
• An unknown child, who died in infancy
• Louis Maurice, Comte de Laval
• Élisabeth, died at the age of 12
• Marie-Charlotte, Duchesse de Saxe-Iéna
• Armand-Charles, died at the age of 8

2) Henri Charles de La Trémoille & Amelia of Hesse-Cassel 

During Henri Charles' reign as Duc de La Trémoille, his family laid claim to the kingdom of Naples. Henri Charles' great-grandmother, Anne de Laval, happened to have been the only legitimate heir of Frederick of Aragon. The family of La Trémoille rushed to the king to present their claim but they were too late. To compensate his loyal followers, Louis XIII granted them the title of Prince de Tarente. Henri Charles could do nothing but bite his tongue but he had no intentions of letting his claim slip. When Louis XIV came to the throne, he petitioned the king again and was given permission to go to Munster to press his claim before the assembly gathered to sign the Treaty of Westphalia. Sadly for Henri Charles, he was denied.

Henri Charles had converted to his mother's religion and would struggle with religious questions throughout his life. During the Fronde, he made the mistake of going against Cardinal Mazarin and found himself on the losing side. As a result, he was arrested in 1656 in Amiens and banished to the Netherlands. While there, he occupied himself with numerous books and literary works arguing for and against Catholicism. 

Meanwhile, his mother had been working on his behalf and managed to get a pardon for him. After three years in exile, he returned to Thouars to take over his father's duties. However, he himself found a religious change of heart and converted to Catholicism. He died two years before his father and the ducal title went to his son.

Amelia was deliberately chosen as a wife to Henri Charles, due to her Calvinist beliefs. Once he converted to Catholicism, she fled to the Netherlands. The rupture between them was complete and Henri Charles took their children from her. She would never return to France, dying in Frankfurt in 1693.

Henri Charles

The couple had five children:

• Charlotte-Émilie, Countess of Oldenburg
• Charles-Belgique-Hollande, Duc de La Trémoille
• Frédéric-Guillaume, Prince de Talmont
• Henriette-Céleste, died young
• Marie-Sylvie, unknown

3) Charles-Belgique-Hollande & Madeleine de Créquy

By the time Charles came of age, he was particularly well-connected at court. Through his mother, he was related to the new Madame, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. When Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, Charles was amongst those who clearly voiced his protests - probably because the revocation meant that his mother would be in exile for life.

Despite his efforts on his mother's behalf, he would also convert to Catholicism in 1670.

Madeleine was Duchesse de Poix in her own right, as the only daughter of the Duc de Créquy.

The couple had two children:

• Charles Louis Bretagne, Duc de La Trémoille
• Marie Armande, Duchesse de Bouillon

4) Charles Louis Bretagne de La Trémoille & Marie-Madeleine Motier de La Fayette

Charles Louis began a career in the king's service. On the battlefield he achieved the rank of Marèchal de Camp while at court, he was made First Gentleman of the King's Bedchamber. Marie-Madeleine was the last member of the oldest branch of the La Fayette-family. 

Sadly, neither of them were destined to live long. Charles Louis died when he was 36 years old and Marie-Madeleine at just 25.

The couple had a single child:

• Charles Armand René, Duc de La Trémoille

Charles Louis

5) Charles Armand René de La Trémoille & Marie-Hortense de La Tour d'Auvergne

Charles Armand turned out to be a man of many talents. He distinguished himself on the battlefield - particularly at the battle of Guastalla - and was made a colonel at the tender age of 18. He would later inherit his father's post as First Gentleman of the King's Bedchamber and received the governorship of the Île-de-France.

Apparently, he possessed literary skills as well and was admitted to the Académie Française in 1738. He was later granted the Order of the Saint-Esprit. Much like his father, he would not live for long, dying at the age of 33.

Marie-Hortense was Charles' first-cousin, as the daughter of Marie Armande, Duchesse de Bouillon. She would die at the age of 37. Interestingly, both Charles Armand and Marie-Hortense died in 1741.

They had one child:

• Jean-Bretagne-Charles-Godefroy, Duc de La Trémoille

6) Jean-Bretagne-Charles-Godefroy de La Trémoille & (I) Marie-Geneviève de Durfort, (II) Marie-Maximilienne de Salm-Kirbourg

Jean served his time in the army and was promoted to the rank of brigadier; however, his military career was cut short when he was seriously wounded. When the revolution broke out, Jean remained loyal to Louis XVI and emigrated in 1789. While he was in exile, he learned that two of his four sons had been guillotined.

Marie-Geneviève was known as Mademoiselle de Randan prior to her marriage. Despite being married for 11 years, the couple had no children.

Marie-Maximilienne actually held the title of princesse, since her father was the sovereign of the state Salm Kyrbourg (a state within the Holy Roman Empire).

The couple had four children:

• Charles-Bretagne-Marie, Duc de La Trémoille (during the Restoration)
• Antoine Philippe, Prince de Talmont (guillotined)
• Charles-Godefroy, Canon (guillotined)
• Louis-Stanislas

Interesting facts and anecdotes:

• Charlotte-Émilie, who became Countess of Oldenburg, would be closely connected to the Danish nobility. After her husband's death, the county of Oldenburg went to the King of Denmark
• The wife of Charles-Bretagne-Marie was Louise-Emmanuelle de Châtillon who happened to be a Dame du Palais to Marie Antoinette
• Jean-Bretagne-Charles-Godefroy was the first Duc de La Trémoille in three generations to reach his 40th birthday
• Antoine Philippe was guillotined in front of the gates of his château de Laval

Portrait gallery:

Antoine Philippe, Prince de Talmont
(guillotined in 1794)

Marie Armande, Duchesse de Bouillon
by marriage - also known as the
Princesse de Turenne

Presumed to be Marie Anne de La
Trémoille, Princesse des Ursins

The Colour Palette of Fashion: Blue

The production of blue clothing in the 17th and 18th century was a remarkably political subject. Traditionally, European dyers had used woad to achieve a blue hue. France had established centers of dyeing industries in Amiens and Toulouse - both cities used woad. There was a catch, though: dyeing with woad took a long time and a lot of work. With the increased trade with the Far East, indigo became an alternative to woad. Yet, the emergence of indigo threatened the trade at Amiens and Toulouse which is why a ban was placed on import of indigo. 

Robe à la Française, Grand Habit 1750 and Robe à la Française 1750's

Despite the ban, indigo flowed into the French market and Louis XV finally lifted the ban in 1737. While Toulouse - which produced primarily pastel blue - lost almost its entire business, new places were experiencing a boom. This was particularly the case for port cities such as Marseilles and Bordeaux.

In 1664, Louis XIV had established a new honour for his courtiers to strife for: wearing the justaucorps à brevet. Fifty courtiers - no more, no less - were admitted to this group who wore blue, silk coats and were permitted to follow the king on his hunts without a specific invitation. Another sign of high status was the blue ribbon of the Order of the Saint-Louis which was typically granted to all princes born to the royal family. Most official portraits from this period shows the order on proud display.

Robe à la Française 1755-75, robe à l'Anglaise
1760's and robe à la Française 1760's

At court, Madame de Pompadour would often add forget-me-nots to her hair, hats and accessories. The blue flower represented faithfulness - in this case to her lover, Louis XV. This was not a new invention of behalf of the powerful maîtresse; for centuries, these flowers had been a sign of loyalty.

Back of a coat (unknown date), suit 1780 and
suit 1760

Blue was a regular colour at court in another, more martial capacity: uniforms. During the 18th century, blue increasingly became popular as a colour for military uniforms and France, in particular, matched their uniforms with the blue of the royal insignia. Thus, the gorgeous officers' uniforms of the age were a common sight at Versailles. It should be remembered that the majority of young aristocratic men served time in the army and given their status, they were immediately granted officer status - deserved or not.

Suit 1760's, Spanish waistcoat and a coat said to
have belonged to Axel von Fersen

It was not just the young military men who sported their blue uniforms at court. The Gardes Françaises - the king's personal bodyguard - wore deep blue uniforms with red trimmings. While the design changed slightly over the decades, the colour scheme remained the same.

Three portraits of Marie Antoinette wearing
blue

Marie Antoinette particularly adored pastel blue. Antonia Fraser mentions that the first time the Marquise de La Tour du Pin saw the queen, Marie Antoinette was wearing a blue court gown strewn with sapphires and diamonds. When the young Austrian archduchess arrived at Versailles, the gift from Louis XV included two clasps for a bracelet made from blue enamel with diamonds forming her monogram.

Future Comtesse de Provence, Comtesse d'Artois, Madame
Adélaide and Madame Victoire

Marie Antoinette's fondness for blue was such that several portraits of her depicts her in this very shade. Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun's last portrait of her from 1788 shows the queen in a blue velvet gown. Three years earlier, Wertmüller painted her with blue ribbons in her hair. Probably the most famous portrait of Marie Antoinette - also by Élisabeth Vigée le Brun - shows the queen in a luxurious, blue silk with blue and white trimmings.

The queen was not the only one who had a thing for blue hues. Her adversary, Madame du Barry, maintained a position in elegant salons after the death of Louis XV - although she was never welcome back at Versailles. She ordered a gown from Rose Bertin in January 1782 of blue and silver silk adorned with golden acorns and ears of wheat.

Marquis de Caumont, Lord Wodehouse, unknown
man and an unnamed marquis

There are a surprising amount of portraits of the royal family wearing blue. Naturally, the official state portraits contain the blue background to the fleur-de-lys but other, more personal, portraits shows that either the colour was a family favourite or very much in fashion - especially from the second half of the 18th century. To finish up this post, here are a few more portraits of the royal family: 

Madame Louise Élisabeth, Comte de Provence,
Madame Victoire and Marie Josèphe

Madame Sophie, Comte d'Artois (as a child),
Marię Leszczyńska and Louis XVI

The Colour Palette of Fashion: Green

Green was one of the more expensive and difficult colours to achieve. Being a combination of yellow and blue, it was necessary to use two vats for dyeing clothing. 

In the 1660's green was not a very fashionable colour. The Mercure Gallant describes that there were more green to be found in a flower bouquet than on clothing. It did slightly come back into fashion towards the end of the 17th century. Even the Duchesse de Bourgogne was noted as wearing a gown with green details for the betrothal between Mademoiselle (daughter of Philippe, Duc d'Orléans) and the Duc de Lorraine. That same Mademoiselle was recorded as wearing a gown of green velvet by her mother, Elizabeth-Charlotte of the Palatinate.

Robe à la Française 1730-50, Robe à la Française (unknown
age), Robe à la Française 1750-60

Silk was one of the most common fabrics in an 18th century aristocrats wardrobe. So, if they ordered something silky in green, the dyer would have to start the following process (it should be said that this varied from dyer to dyer but this particular recipe is from 1735). The process would take at least two days and required the following ingredients: alum, white wine tartar, broom, verdegris, pot-ashes - and these does not even include what was needed for the yellow and blue vats.

Towards the very last decade of the 18th century a new - and deadly - was of producing a brilliant emerald green was discovered. Copper was mixed with arsenic trioxide (white arsenic) created remarkably cheap and durable greens but was eventually prohibited due to its highly toxic nature.

Back of a robe à la Circasienne 1780's, robe à la Française 1750's,
velvet robe 1718

Green was the second signature colour of Madame de Pompadour whose most famous portrait depicts her wearing a deep green (almost teal) gown with pink bows and ribbons. 

There was another way for green to emerge in fashion - through its link with nature. Leaves and  green foliage were used for towering headdresses. The reason for why green suddenly made a come-back in the last part of the Ancien Regime was in large part to the philosophical influences of writers such as Rousseau. He praised green for its association with nature which was eagerly taken up by particularly Marie Antoinette. 

Suit from 1760-80, suit from 1785 and suit from 1785-90

Nevertheless, the shades of green were endless. Apple-green, emerald, sage, grass, moss, pistachio, duck green and pastel greens were only a few available. When Louis XVI sat upon the throne, one of the more popular combinations for satin was green and white stripes. Imported goods from China provided the French court with a new source of "greenery". Rhamnus - thorns of a Chinese plant - were found to give a lasting, green shade.

One of the more interesting records which as survived the ravages of the French Revolution is the personal record of a Madame de Boyer. She was married to an officer who happened to be an aristocrat to boot. Their family was firmly placed in what could be termed as the middle-nobility; they were not on the lowest rank of the aristocracy nor were they of the first families. Her personal diaries span the years 1779-1789 and illustrates that towards the late 1780's green was a particular favourite of her's. For this post, it is the type of greens that are interesting. "Sea-green" would seem to be a pale green-bluish tone but one can only wonder what "Dragon-green" was - or even the so-called English green. 

Countess of Bristol, Louise-Henriette Bouef de Curis and 
Johanna of Schaumburg-Lippe

Once the revolution broke out it was suggested to make green the colour of the new republic due to the colour's symbolical connection with liberty. However, it was eventually dropped as green also happened to be the colour of the Comte d'Artois' livery. Coincidentally, the controversial Rose Bertin also clad her servants in green livery with golden embroidery.

Earl of Morton, Thomas Fortescue and Louis Ferdinand, dauphin
of France

A deep green was a regular sight in the king and queen's apartments. Green taffeta were used to cover  and even transport the clothing chosen for the day by the monarchs. Among the last items to be repaired for Marie Antoinette by her seamstress, Madame Eloffe, were two green, silk bodices. 

Maria Luisa of Parma, Madame de Pompadour and Ernestine
Albertine of Saxe-Weimar

The Colour Palette of Fashion: Pink

Fashionable colours rotate on a constant basis; some are firm fixtures while others are passing trends that disappear as soon as the craze for them has passed. In this wheel of colours, pink is one of the newest colours to enter the permanent shades. Prior to the 17th century, pink was not found amongst the wardrobes of either aristocracy or commoners. In art, it was usually for skin tones or perhaps flowers but rarely (although not never) clothing. It was not until the 18th century that the word "pink" was even coined in the English language.

Robe à l'Anglaise 1785-87, robe à la Française 1750 and
robe à la Française 1775

Recently, the colour pink has been associated with femininity but historically this was not the case. The 17th and 18th century did not assign specific colours to genders, so pink and blue were not considered to be "reserved" for girls and boys respectively. On the contrary, both men and women had their portraits painted while wearing completely pink ensembles. To a gentleman at Versailles, there was nothing unmanly about a pink, silk suit.

While the age of Versailles did not think of pink as a "girl colour", it was still subjected to other social rules. Pink was a young person's colour. For instance, when Marie Antoinette reached her 30th birthday she ceased wearing the delicate pinks of her youth. As the ill-fated queen stated, it was not suitable for a woman to continue to wear such a shade. This perfectly illustrates how her contemporary world viewed the colour pink.

Robe à l'Anglaise, 1770-80, robe à la Française 1770 and
robe à la Française 1770's

It was not until the latter half of the 18th century that pink truly became a fashion statement. From this period on, pastel tones became more in vogue compared to the stronger colours that had previously dominated. Consequently, pink took over where a deeper red had previously been preferred.

Madame de Pompadour introduced her two signature shades during her reign as Louis XV's mistress: a delicate green and a rosy pink. While she was in power, these shades were the height of fashion - or at least, for those who did not mind following a bourgeoisie's lead. The "Pompadour pink" was made by adding drops of blue, black and yellow to the pink dye.

Suit 1750-60, suit 1780's and the suit worn by Louis XVII,
son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

La Pompadour fully embraced her signature colours. Amongst her modes of transportations, she had a carriage which was painted in the very shade of pink that became so associated with her. Indoors, Sèvres (who had come up with the blend) supplied her with vases, incense burners and artificial flowers in the same tone.

Suit 1775-80, suit 1770's and waistcoat from 1760

Madder - or rather its roots - had traditionally been used to achieve a deep, red colour. However, it could also be used for pink. China and Japan were masters when it came to dyeing (especially silks) so it is hardly surprising that a lot of dyed fabrics were imported. However, the Europeans were not completely behind. Since Roman times, madder had been cultivated in Italy. By 1747, the more modern methods of deriving red from madder were brought to France.

A recipe of the mid-18th century describes how silk could be dyed pink. The recipe calls for safflower, pearl-ash and lime juice amongst other ingredients. For wool, alum and cream of tartar was called for. The same recipe notes that if the pink is not strong enough, the fabric should be heated while soaking in a madder liquid.

Comtesse de Provence, Madame Adélaide
and Marie Antoinette as a child

As with every other colour that happens to come into fashion, the shade spreads beyond clothing. Furniture, china even jewels could be had in pink shades. Pink diamonds were listed amongst the possession of the French Crown Jewels.

The symbolic meaning of pink was very divided, too. Since it was made so popular by the king's mistress, it would inevitably be connected with flirtation and romance - regardless of  whether she shared his bed or not. One of the most famous paintings of the 18th century is "the Swing" by Jean-Honoré Fragonard which captures the romantic side to the colour.

Marquise de Caumont La Force, Madame de
Pompadour and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia

However, not long after Madame de Pompadour's death, pink was suddenly associated with youth and innocence. Thus, it quickly went from being the colour of aristocratic flirtations to a delicate shade donned by the youth of the court.

Comte de Provence (as a child), Comte d'Artois 
and an unknown gentleman

Baby Bumps In Corsets: Maternity Wear in the 17th and 18th Century

The 18th century is almost synonymous with the dramatic fashions of the time; the elaborate gowns with tiny waists and huge panniers are well recognized silhouettes from the time. Yet, the tightly laced bodices were hardly compatible with the growing midriff of a pregnant woman. Nevertheless, in an age with no birth control and where aristocratic marriages were contracted with the intention of producing an heir, women often went through many pregnancies. So, maternity wear was as necessary then as it is now - but how did it look?

In private, ladies (and gentlemen for that matter) were free to wear looser fitting clothing. However, in the stiff court ceremonies there were no room for such luxuries. Instead, women continued to wear their normal clothing and simply loosened their corset and, as their bellies grew, could exchange it for a different type of corset. It is little wonder that fainting fits were considered a normal sign that a woman was pregnant.

The corsets worn by a woman with child could be loosened both at the front and at the sides. The design was rather ingenious. In the beginning of the pregnancy, the corset could still be laced rather tightly but as the woman's stomach grew, laces at the side were gradually loosened depending on how far along she was. In this manner, it differed from the otherwise completely stiff whalebone corsets. But it should still be pointed out that she would be expected to wear a corset.

Corset (reproduction) of an 18th century pregnancy
corset

Marie Adélaide of Savoy shocked the court at Versailles when she became pregnant and took off her corset. During this period - Louis XIV's era - it was well-known that the king loathed sloppiness in dress in his female companions. While the Duc de Bourgogne, her husband, supported her, she was eventually admonished to put the corset back on.

During the baroque age, the Adrienne gown was the standard pregnancy gown. In this period, there was less focus on a tight and slim silhouette which would become fashionable in the middle of the 18th century. Instead, the Adrienne gown was very loose-fitting and had no actual waistline. Layers upon layers fell from the bust and thus covered the expanding waistline. The Adrienne came into style in 1703 and was named after an actress who played the leading lady in the play by the same name. However, as the Duchesse de Bourgogne found out, Louis XIV was not best pleased to see the women of his court in too loose clothing.

An Adrienne gown seen from the side

Interestingly enough, the robe à la Française was originally meant to be a pregnancy gown and as such was very informal. But as the 18th century progressed it was tightened to conform to the tastes of the era and became the standard formal wear - overshadowed only by the grand habits.

It was only in the latter part of the pregnancy that court ladies were socially permitted to throw off the stiff court gowns. Considering that miscarriages were a common phenomenon, it is likely that this was allowed in order to protect the child. Another reason was that it simply was not possible for a woman in her ninth month of pregnancy to squeeze herself into her customary gown.

It should be said, that once these late months of pregnancy were reached, it was not looked down upon in the slightest to wear more loose-fitting clothes. Even the queen (or perhaps especially the queen, considering the importance of the child she was carrying) was allowed to relax her style. Marie Antoinette received the ambassador of Venice in such informal wear, for instance. Yet, she made sure to make her apologies and explain her state - which must have been fairly obvious but manners matter!

A woman wearing a lévite gown while playing with her monkey - as you do,
of course

When Marie Antoinette at long last conceived a child, she took hitherto unseen liberties when it came to her pregnancy clothing. A particular favourite in this aspect was the "lévite" gown which suited perfectly to both the queen's condition and her estate at Petit Trianon. The gown made no use of tightly laced whalebone corset but highlighted the waist with a scarf loosely bound in a knot. The sleeves, too, were looser which must have been a great comfort compared to the tight sleeves of a grand habit. According to Caroline Weber in her wonderful book "Queen of Fashion", she mention that by 1782, the lévites accounted for 1/3 of the queen's wardrobe. This in itself shows a change in society's attitude towards this new silhouette - at least at Petit Trianon.

Before Marie Antoinette donned her looser gowns, her predecessor, Marie Leszczynska, had fewer options. The Polish-born consort of Louis XV, endured a decade of almost constant pregnancies, so naturally, pregnancy clothing was a stable in her wardrobe. 

The term "maternity wear" did not actually exist in the 18th century. Today, we connect the term with not only clothing worn during pregnancy but sometimes also after. However, a lady at Versailles was expected to be back in her whalebone corset once she had staid out her period of bed-rest.

Natalia Alexeivna, Tsarevna of Russia, pregnant in 1775