Expensive Beauty: The Wardrobe of Madame du Barry

By the time Jeanne Bécu made her way into the inner apartments of Versailles, fashions had changed considerably from the start of her royal lover's reign. Gone were the heavy damask fabrics and heavy brocade; instead, ladies had embraced the pastel silks of the rococo. As Louis XV's reign came towards its end these fashions became increasingly expensive - both due to general inflation and to the sheer amount of fashionable accessories needed to keep up appearances.

One particular lady who definitely needed to do just that was the newly-minted Comtesse du Barry. Born as a commoner - and having worked for a while as a high-end prostitute - Madame du Barry had a definite fondness for all things luxurious. Remarkably, most of her accounts from both during and after her time at Versailles has survived the revolution; this gives us an incredible insight into her personal style and the heavy price tags associated with it.

Over the years, she would order heavily from a wide variety of Parisian milliners including Prospre Le Duc, La Pagelle, Le Barbier, Buffaut Lenormand, Sighy - and Madame Bertin. It should be noted that not everything bought by the royal favourite was new. Oftentimes, she would order individual pieces of clothing or fabrics to be incorporated into her existing wardrobe. For instance, in April 1773, she had 6 different orders of 18 aunes of taffeta delivered to Versailles by Prospre Le Duc - this particular purchase cost her 1.046 livres.

The fine, striped gauze has been 
perfectly captured by Drouais along
with two of her favourite colours:
white and pink

Likewise, La Pagelle was primarily hired by Madame du Barry to perform alterations or repairs to dresses, fichus, chemises etc. She also employed a personal embroiderer by the name of Davaux who specialised in working on either white or pastel-coloured silks. 

Before embarking on the career that would eventually land her in the king's bed, she had herself been employed by Monsieur Labille in a milliner's shop. As such, she was far from a newcomer to the world of fashion which seems to have been an area of genuine interest to her. One can only imagine her boxing up the elaborate concoctions for the fine ladies of Paris, hardly imagining that she herself would one day be on the receiving end of the delivery.

Considering that her position as royal mistress meant that most of her power was derived from activities behind closed doors, it is hardly surprising to find that she spent prodigiously on intimate items. Her chemises were of the finest linens and most of her lace - whether on her fichus, engageantes, flannels etc - was of Argentan lace. This particular type of lace was produced in Normandy and was renowned for its incredibly intricate design. She would occasionally swap out her Argentan lace for English lace which was no less costly.

Even her chemises were adorned with various types of decorations - in 1770 alone, she purchased 18 different types to attach to what was considered the most intimate piece of clothing.

Although invented by her rival,
Marie Antoinette, Madame du Barry
embraced the chemise à la Reine -
and especially the elaborate straw hats

When it came to colours, Madame du Barry favoured white, pink and blue - a particular favourite appears to have been white combined with embroidery and/or a type of sequin. Luckily for her, the colours in fashion happened to be the very ones that suited her the best: pale blues and lilacs, in particular, were excellent for highlighting her infamously seductive eyes. As for fabrics, Jeanne preferred the very best available; most of her purchases are specified as having been for fabrics of "qualité superieur" or "premium quality". This would include a lot of taffeta, silks and satins, besides the aforementioned lace.

Naturally, such a penchant for goods of the highest quality came with a significant price tag. In 1772 alone, she appears to have spent 56.957 livres on a single account - and that is only what appears from her own account. It was far from unusual that her purchases would be placed on the king's account which makes it almost impossible to pinpoint a precise total. In fact, this number seems quite low considering that she spent at least 18.104 livres in a single quarter in the previous year of 1771. 

Furthermore, a good deal of the taffeta she ordered had to be imported. Her accounts show such transactions with merchants from Italy, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. This, too, had its price. 

It is little wonder that the royal favourite more often than not found herself in debt to her milliners. Even with the king picking up a large portion of her bills, the authors of her gowns could not be sure to receive payment for their services. When Rose Bertin eventually declared bankruptcy, unpaid bills from the then ci-devant maitresse-en-titre were amongst those in her registry.

Interestingly, Madame du Barry's personal taste can be seen in the designs she wore. Some of her accounts are most particular in describing exactly what type of gown she had bought. As a direct result hereof, we know that she owned - and likely wore - these dresses:

A large coat of blue taffeta with striped, English gauze in chenille brocade (42 livres by Rose Bertin)

A large taffeta coat with striped silk, possibly as a lining (42 livres by Rose Bertin)

A hat in the English style with a white cap, blue speckled ribbon of satin and a whole array of various adornments (72 livres by Rose Bertin)

A grand habit of white satin with rose garlands as well as gold and silver sequins which had been hand-embroidered onto the gown's hem (5840 livres by Propre Le Duc)

Another hat with Italian gauze with a border of tulle, polka-dotted background and gauze drapery embroidered with a tad of lace (78 livres)

A gown of white gouryourand sewn with small bouquets of sequins, two large "columns" forming a garland of silk and sequins in turquoise (3850 livres)

A gown of silver fabric strewn with bouquets of feathers and myrtle (unknown price)

A grand habit of white satin, garlands with roses (again), gold sequins, embroidery details in blue tones (3900 livres by Prospre Le Duc)

Two habits d'amazone: one of brown, Italian taffeta and one of white fabric

A bonnet with fine, Alençon lace in double layer (180 livres)

A grand robe en chemise of striped, English gauze/tulle with lilac details (360 livres)

A gown of white gouryourand, embroidered with gold sequins and small garlands of pompons in pink and green silk (3260 livres)

Two English habits  

As a mistress, Madame du Barry was often portrayed in deshabillé. While she was especially beautiful in this type of undress it is a shame that there are virtually no portraits of her in her more elaborate court gowns - instead, most - if not all - portraits show her either in a chemise à la Reine or in a similar state of undress. 

Madame du Barry followed the contemporary styles quite like most other ladies at court. As such, she favoured the emerging English style of dress and the increasingly expensive straw hats concocted by Rose Bertin. It says something about her slavish adherence to fashion that she readily adopted the simplistic chemise à la Reine which had been invented by her arch-rival: Marie Antoinette.

Jeanne's taste for fine clothing did not abate after the death of Louis XV. Between February 1778 to August 1779, she spent 11.438 livres at Madame Bertin's shop alone. One of her extravagant purchases of this period was an astonishing coat embroidered with blue gemstones (whether real or not is up for speculation), pearls and artificial, golden sheaves of wheat. This would cost her 2000 livres.

Madame du Barry in a chemise à la
Reine - note the use of roses in her hair
which perfectly matches both her
sash and her complexion

The idea of having her clothing embroidered with gemstones was far from a novel one. Madame du Barry had a true passion for them; diamonds, sapphires, rubies, emeralds - she would amass an impressive collection and delighted in showing them off through her clothing. Besides the coat mentioned above, she had been seen wearing bodices completely strewn with varying stones or belts with diamond-encrusted clasps. Naturally, such extravagant use of precious stones elicited comment from her contemporaries. Even those who were not outright against the favourite found the practice somewhat tacky - after all, was it truly necessary to wear such a prodigious amount of diamonds for normal soirée?

Amidst all the artificial finery, the Comtesse du Barry was fond of real roses. She would often incorporate them into her attire, whether woven into her hair or attached to her gown. The result was a fresh(-er) appearance and the scent cannot have been to her disadvantage either. 

Overall, Madame du Barry was a woman of expensive taste. She knew that her natural beauty was best enhanced by soft, delicate hues and allowed her passion for gemstones and finery to dictate her private tastes.

The Difficult Pregnancies of Henriette of England

Henriette of England - better known at court as Madame - is best known partly for being the first wife of the flamboyant Philippe d'Orléans and partly for her sudden and untimely death. 

At the age of 16, the English exile had been married to Philippe in the Palais-Royal; shortly afterwards Henriette found herself to be in "the family way" - that would prove to be the first step in what would prove to be a troubled series of pregnancies. For the next eight years, Henriette would find herself pregnant every single year. Inevitably, this would have an immensely detrimental effect on her health. 

Initially, there was little to suggest that she would have a particularly difficult time producing an heir to the Orléans-branch. Even considering the sky-high infant mortality rates and utter lack of knowledge of either bacteria or basic gynecology, both mother and father were young and seemingly healthy. Henriette's first pregnancy only strengthened the perception that children would surely come - she carried the child to term and finally gave birth to a healthy daughter on 26 March 1662. The infant girl was baptised Marie Louise and quickly handed over to a wet-nurse. It was noted that the delivery was slightly premature but due dates were difficult to ascertain and it was remarked that the birth was without complications.

Yet, it would soon become evident that Henriette's health was anything but sturdy. She was prone to illness and following the birth of Marie Louise, she suffered from insomnia, lost weight rapidly and coughed non-stop. As early as 1661, Charles II - her brother - felt concerned enough to personally write to inquire after her. Still, she recovered some of her strength and once she did her contemporaries expected her to produce a male heir. 

Madame in 1662 - she had given birth
to a healthy daughter and was possibly
pregnant again

The young Mademoiselle was healthy, alive - but a girl. As such, she was not able to inherit her father's estates due to the prevalent Salic Laws. For Henriette, this meant that although she had just been safely delivered of a strong child, she was expected to conceive soon and she did not disappoint. Exactly when she became pregnant again is unknown but this second pregnancy was nothing like the first. In 1663, it was reported that Madame had suffered "an accident" - a common term referring to miscarriages.

Around November 1663, Henriette was pregnant again. This time, there were no tragic "accidents" and when she went into labour on 27 July 1664, both she and Philippe were overjoyed to find the child to be a boy. Named for his father and grandfather, the newly-born Philippe Charles d'Orléans would join his sister in the nursery - but only for a short while. To the sorrow of his parents, Philippe Charles died at the age of just 2 years old.

Infant mortality was rampant in the 17th century so the untimely death of Philippe Charles might not have been the cause of an underlying medical condition. This is further supported by the fact that Louis XIV himself noted in a letter to Henriette's mother (Henrietta Maria of France) that both child and mother were in good health after the birth. This, at least, indicates that the birth had not been as traumatic as her first ordeal.

From 1664, something appears to have changed. The years 1664 - 1668 saw the Duchesse d'Orléans pregnant no less than four times; but tragically, each pregnancy ended in disaster. On 9 July 1665, Madame was delivered of a still-born daughter. Both her mind and psyche would be further rocked by three consecutive miscarriages in 1666, 1667 and 1668 respectively. It can only be imagined the indescribable toll this must have taken on the young woman who was not yet 25 years old. 

Henriette in 1665. Considering that
she miscarried this very year, she
might have been pregnant when she
sat for the portrait

It is worth stressing that Henriette's own life was endangered with each pregnancy. When she miscarried in 1667, she fell so gravely ill that for ten days, few expected her to survive. It is actually from Philippe himself that we gain insight into this particular loss. He wrote to Henriette's beloved brother, Charles II, to inform him of his sister's condition. In doing so, Philippe explain that she had suffered "an accident" on the 5 July 1667, following which she had been thought to be dead for about 15 minutes. Afterwards, she was not able to sit up on her own for a week, according to her husband.

By December 1668, she would conceive for a final time. Given the losses of the previous years, one can hardly blame her if she felt terrified at the prospect of another miscarriage or stillbirth. Besides the emotional torment such losses brought, it should also be remembered that each one brought her own life in danger. However, as the months wore on, nothing went awry and by 27 August 1669 Henriette gave birth to her third living child - another girl. The infant was named Anne Marie d'Orléans and appeared in perfect health.

Sadly, the same could not be said of her mother; just 10 months later, Henriette of England was dead.

Madame holding a portrait of
 Monsieur

This string of eight pregnancies of which only two resulted in children living past the age of 2 years old, leads one to wonder: why? Was there a particular reason for Madame's troubled record?

It has been suggested that perhaps she suffered from syphilis, passed on to her by her husband, Philippe. Those who argued in favour of this theory puts forward that it would explain why their eldest surviving daughter, Marie Louise, was unable to have children herself. If Henriette had contracted syphilis via her husband, it is likely that she passed it on to her children as congenital syphilis. It could be an explanation as to why she suffered so many miscarriages and stillbirths.

As for Marie Louise and Anne Marie, if their mother was infected with this venereal disease, then they would potentially suffer from it, too. However, it might not have been obvious from an untrained observer. While congenital syphilis can result in very clear symptoms - i.e. bone deformities, blindness or skin rashes - it could also show in hidden ways, such as anemia or an enlarged liver or spleen.

This is where especially the fate of Marie Louise becomes interesting. In an eerie turn of events, Marie Louise died at the exact same age as her mother had - and she exhibited the same symptoms immediately prior to death. Both mother and daughter complained of a sharp pain in her abdomen. While Henriette's pain could be attributed to a ruptured ulcer - as medical experts of the 20th century concluded - Marie Louise's could have been a result of either an enlarged liver or spleen. However, this sharp pain could just as easily be attributed to something completely different - for instance a burst appendix.

Anne Marie, on the other hand, had no problems conceiving. She gave birth to eight children of which two were stillborn. Sad is it is, that was not uncommon for the time, nor were the fact that several of her children died in childhood. 

According to Lee Goldman, MD, the risk of a mother passing the infection on to the fetus is at its largest "at least the first five years of her infection" - if Henriette had been infected shortly after her wedding or even the birth of her first child, then this could explain why her last pregnancy resulted in a full-term pregnancy rather than a miscarriage/stillbirth.

It should also be pointed out that it was a rumour only that Philippe had syphilis - he might or might not have had that disease. In this connection it is interesting that his second wife, Elizabeth Charlotte, did not suffer any miscarriages (that we know of) and all their three children were born alive - although their eldest died young. 

Marie Louise - the eldest daughter
of Monsieur and Madame who
would share her mother's fate
of dying at age 26

It has also been suggested that Henriette suffered from that one illness royalty seem unable to escape: porphyria. As an example, author Irvin Sherman noted in his book "Twelve Diseases that Changed Our World" that Henriette showed symptoms of porphyria. However, there is no common connection between miscarriages and that particular disease nor is the life expectancy generally affected.

This brings another aspect into consideration - another affliction keenly known by royalty at this time: inbreeding. Philippe and Henriette were first-cousins which could have had an impact on their ability to conceive healthy children. After all, Philippe's brother, Louis XIV, had also married a first-cousin, Marie Therese, and she suffered several miscarriages as well.

At the end of the day, we will likely never know if Henriette actually did suffer from a serious illness. It is just as likely that her premature death was the cause of 8 years with non-stop pregnancies combined with a naturally delicate health. The lack of medical knowledge at the time would have made her chances of a longer life even more doubtful when one takes these aspects into consideration. Like all other women, she would have been the prey of infections, puerperal fever, hemorrhaging etc. It would not be surprising if a woman whose health was delicate from the beginning would be further exasperated by spending almost a third of her life either pregnant or giving birth.

The impact such losses had on her mental health cannot be underestimated either. Besides the obvious damage due to losing her children, Henriette - like all other women of high status - was exposed to a constant and unwavering demand for a male heir. Philippe would often publicly complain that he had no son to succeed him and Henriette herself was known to also publicly vent her frustration at the gender of her two children. This alone can only have added to the physical strain she must have been under.

Creations: New Dukedoms during Louis XV

During Louis XV's reign, 24 new dukedoms were erected for favoured courtiers; only one of these were created during his minority. A title of duke was the highest honour the king could bestow on his courtiers, as the higher-ranking titles were reserved for those born into them.

Duc de Valentinois

Creation: 1716
For: Jacques I of Monaco

Family: Grimaldi

Status: extant
Anecdote:

Jacques I only acceded to that title by marriage - he was chosen by the then-reigning Antonio I of Monaco for his eldest daughter, as Antonio had no male heirs. The candidature was supported by Louis XIV who might very well have intended to bestow the dukedom himself but died beforehand. It was the very first title bestowed by the then six-year old Louis XV.

Duc de Lévis

Creation: 1723
For: Charles Eugène de Lévis

Family: Lévis

Status: extinct in 1734
Anecdote:

When Louis XV bestowed this title upon Charles, it was intended as a hereditary duchy. However, in a tragic turn of events, all three of Charles' sons died before their father. This meant that the duchy passed into the house of Castries when his sole surviving child - a daughter, Marie-Françoise - married into it. That particular house went on to sell the title to the famed architect Jacques Hardouin-Mansart in 1752.

Duc de Mercœur

Creation: 1723
For: Louis François de Bourbon-Conti

Family: Conti

Status: sold in 1770 to the crown
Anecdote:

Initially showing talent as a military leader, he was later by-passed when the Seven Years' War broke out; it has widely been speculated that this was the work of Madame de Pompadour. Either way, it left the king's cousin so angry that he began using his influence to directly work against the king's government which eventually left to his exile.

Prince de Conti

Duc d'Alincourt

Creation: 1729
For: François Camille de Neufville de Villeroy

Family: Neufville de Villeroy

Status: extinct in 1732
Anecdote:

François was the second son of the Duc de Villeroy and with his elder brother still living, he was not expected to become a duke. However, the king kindly bestowed another duchy on the family. Sadly, for François he would only hold it for three years before dying.

Duc de Châtellerault

Creation: 1730
For: Anne-Charles-Frédéric de La Trémoille

Family: La Trémoille

Status: extinct in 1759
Anecdote:

This particular title does not appear to have ever remained long with the same family - by 1730, it had been created no less than eight times since 1515. When it was created for Anne-Charles-Frédéric that trend appears to have continued as it would not be passed on to another until the following century.

Duc de Lauraguais

Creation: 1731
For: Louis II de Brancas

Family: Brancas
Anecdote:

Louis received his second dukedom - being already Duc de Villars - upon his first marriage in 1731. His young wife died tragically following childbirth at the age of 19, after which he married the king's former mistress, Diane-Adélaide de Mailly. 

Duc de Fleury

Creation: 1736

For: André-Hercule de Rosset de Rocozel

Family: Rosset

Status: extinct in 1815
Anecdote:

Not to be confused with his vastly powerful uncle, Cardinal Fleury, André-Hercule appears to have divided his time somewhat equally between serving in the king's army and in the king's court. In the former he achieved the rank of lieutenant-general and at court he was nominated as one of the king's four Premier Gentilhommes de la Chambre

Duc de Boutteville

Creation: 1736
For: Charles Paul Sigismond de Montmorency-Luxembourg

Family: Montmorency

Status: extinct in 1785
Anecdote:

Known primarily as the Duc de Châtillon, Charles was also a descendant of Hugues Capet and as such were related to royalty; it is therefore no wonder that he held a whole array of titles besides his dukedoms: Marquis de Royan, Comte de Hallot, Comte d'Olonne, Governor of Maine, Governor of du Perche and Governor of Laval.

Duc d'Estissac

Creation: 1737
For: Louis François Armand de La Rochefoucauld de Roye

Family: La Rochefoucauld

Status: extant
Anecdote:

Originally, this was a title bestowed à brevet, meaning solely for the recipient. However, in 1758 Louis XV further ennobled him by making the title hereditary.

Duc d'Ayen

Creation: 1737
For: Louis de Noailles

Family: Noailles
Anecdote:

Being already the son and heir of the Duc de Noailles, Louis probably owed his further advancement to the fact that his mother was a certain Françoise Charlotte d'Aubigné - Madame de Maintenon's beloved niece. He managed to die of natural causes in 1793 while four members of his immediate family were guillotined.

Duc d'Ayen

Duc de Lesparre

Creation: 1739
For: Antoine de Gramont

Family: Gramont

Status: extant
Anecdote:

This was a dukedom bestowed à brevet, meaning that it was a mark of royal favour but was not initially intended to be passed on to his heirs. However, this was apparently changed, as his descendants did - and still do - carry the title.

Duc de Gisors

Creation: 1742
For: Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet

Family: Fouquet
Anecdote:

Grandson of the notorious Nicolas Fouquet, the disgraced Superintendent of Finances, Charles determined to regain royal favour by diligent military service which he happened to be particularly well-suited for. He was very successful in his field and became Maréchal de France the year prior to receiving his dukedom.

Duc de Gisors

Duc d'Anville

Creation: 1746
For: Jean-Baptiste Louis Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld

Family: La Rochefoucauld
Anecdote:

Jean-Baptiste pursued the mandatory military career but little could he have known that his greatest claim to fame would be the disastrous expedition to Acacdia - it was even named after him, as the Duc d'Anville Expedition. Utterly unprepared to lead a fleet, the situation was worsened by terrible weather when crossing the Atlantic Ocean. This further lead to the sinking of several ships with some even turning back to France. Jean-Baptiste was amongst those who landed at the planned destination but the remaining soldiers soon suffered a typhoid outbreak - this would eventually kill the newly made Duc d'Anville.

The unfortunate Duc d'Anville

Duc de Coigny

Creation: 1747
For: François de Franquette de Coigny

Family: Coigny
Anecdote:

Once again, it was most likely the military exploits that would later result in the elevation of François from count to duke. His successes in the Wars of the Polish and Austrian Successions also earned him the rank of Maréchal de France.

Duc de Mirepoix

Creation: 1751
For: Gaston Pierre de Lévis

Family: Lévis

Status: extinct 1757
Anecdote:

Perceived as a somewhat non-entity, it was rumoured that he owed his advancement to the fact that Louis XV was interested in his wife - this could also account for his choice as ambassador to Great Britain.

Duc de Mirepoix

Duc de Rochechouart

Creation: 1753
For: Jean-Victor de Rochechouart

Family: Rochechouart

Status: 
Anecdote:

He would later also be given the title of Duc de Mortemart and was from the same family as the celebrated Madame de Montespan.

Duc de Choiseul

Creation: 1758
For: Étienne François de Choiseul

Family: Choiseul

Status: 
Anecdote:

Known for his staunch pro-Austrian position, he was widely seen as the driving force at the French court for the match between Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. After having been in almost supreme power for years, he suddenly fell from grace and was exiled from the court of Louis XV - largely due to the influence of Madame du Barry and her supporters who loathed him.

Duc de Choiseul

Duc de Clermont-Tonnerre

Creation: 1758
For: Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre

Family: Clermont-Tonnerre
Anecdote:

Gaspard was rather unique in one particular aspect: he lived during all three kings of Versailles. Having been born in 1688 at the court of Louis XIV, he would be elevated during Louis XV and finally died during Louis XVI.

Duc de Gontaut

Creation: 1758
For: Charles-Antoine de Gontaut Biron

Family: Gontaut-Biron

Status: extinct in 1862
Anecdote:

Having spent the majority of his life as an officer in the army, the ageing Duc de Gontaut had given his title of Duc de Biron to his only son, Armand-Louis. However, when Armand-Louis was guillotined in 1793, the 85-year old once again became both the Duc de Gontaut and de Biron.

Duc de Laval

Creation: 1758
For: Guy-André-Pierre de Montmorency-Laval

Family: Montmorency-Laval

Status: extinct in 1851
Anecdote:

Primarily a military man, the first Duc de Laval also held the rank of Maréchal de France - it would be these martial exploits that would eventually result in his dukedom. By then, he had been actively involved in military life for 17 years.

Duc de Laval

Duc de La Vauguyon

Creation: 1758
For: Antoine de Quélen de La Vauguyon

Family: Caussade

Anecdote:

Appointed as the governor of the young Louis XVI, he was extremely harsh towards his clumsy and shy royal ward. It would later be said that Louis XVI himself had uttered that he hated no man except for the Duc de La Vauguyon

Duc de Villequier

Creation: 1759
For: Louis-Alexandre-Céleste d'Aumont

Family: Aumont

Status: extant
Anecdote:

He also held the position of one of the four Premier Gentilhommes de la Chambre to the king; he would remain loyal during the revolution - he came dangerously close to being lynched by an angry mob for the crime of wearing a black court suit

Duc de Praslin

Creation: 1762
For: César Gabriel de Choiseul-Praslin

Family: Choiseul
Anecdote:

Not to be confused with his more well-known relative, the Duc de Choiseul, César was a diligent politician who spent time as both diplomatic and military envoy during the wars in Canada and Louisiana of the 1760's.

Duc de Beaumont

Creation: 1765
For: Charles François Christian de Montmorency-Luxembourg

Family: Montmorency-Luxembourg
Anecdote:

Charles inherited the title through his mother, Louise Madeleine d'Harlay, as it would otherwise have gone extinct. However, due to the laws on inheritance, the title had to be "created" again since a woman could not inherit it. Thus, when Charles was born, Louis XV bestowed it on him as if the title had simply "skipped" a step in the lineage.

Duc de Poix

Creation: 1767
For: Philippe de Noailles

Family: Noailles

Status: extinct in 1794 
Anecdote:

Had originally been created for Louis XIV's ambassador to England, Rome, Spain and Bavaria: Charles de Créquy. Sadly, Charles died without male issue which left the king's great-grandson free to bestow it on the Noailles-family. Philippe already held the titles of Prince de Poix, Duc de Mouchy and Comte de Noailles - he was guillotined at the age of 78.

Duc de Poix

Duc de La Vrillière

Creation: 1770
For: Louis III Phélypeaux

Family: Phélypeaux

Status: extinct in 1777
Anecdote:

The family of Phélypeaux had long served the French kings as Secretaries of State - when Louis Phélypeaux was born his father served as the sinister-sounding Secretary of State for Protestant Affairs - a post that Louis inherited. Thus, he was one of a line of statesmen who had made their mark through political office

Duc de La Vrillière

Duc d'Anjou

Creation: 1771
For: Louis Stanislas Xavier de Bourbon 

Family: Royal Family 

Status: merged with the crown in 1795
Anecdote:

Louis received the title from his grandfather upon his graduation from his formative education; he was fifteen years old at the time.

Duc d'Angoulême

Creation: 1773
For: Charles Philippe de Bourbon

Family: Royal Family 

Status: merged with the crown in 1824
Anecdote:

Created for the first male heir of the new generation, it was bestowed on the son of the Comte and Comtesse d'Artois. The then-infant would later go on to marry his first-cousin, Marie Therese, daughter of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.

Duc d'Angoulême

Duc d'Auvergne

Creation: 1773
For: Charles Philippe de Bourbon

Family: Royal Family

Status: exchanged in 1778
Anecdote:

A very old title, the dukedom of Auvergne dated back to the 8th century and was bestowed on the youngest son of the late-Dauphin, Louis Ferdinand. Given that he was about 16 years old, it is likely that it was given as a present by the king upon his finishing formal education - as had been done for his elder brother, the Comte de Provence.

Charles Philippe de Bourbon

Duc de Mercœur

Creation: 1773
For: Charles Philippe de Bourbon

Family: Royal Family

Status: exhanged for the dukedom of Poitou in 1778
Anecdote: 

This was the fourth time this particular title had been "erected"; the first had been in the 16th century for the house of Lorraine. When the last holder - Philippe Emmanuel - died without a male heir, the title was passed on to his daughter, Françoise, who had married the Duc de Vendôme. Thus, it had to be officially created for the Duc de Vendôme whose heirs held it until their extinction in 1712. Following that, it was created for the Prince de Conti (see above) and finally for the Comte d'Artois.

Duc de Croÿ d'Havré

Creation: 1773
For: Joseph Anne Auguste Maximilien de Croÿ

Family: Croÿ

Status: extinct in 1839
Anecdote:

Created as a particular mark of favour in 1773 but not made hereditary.

Duc de Croÿ d'Havré

Henriette Anne de Bourbon, Fille de France

Henriette Anne was born on 14 August 1727, shortly after her twin-sister, Louise Élisabeth. As the daughter of the king of France, Henriette Anne was immediately given the rank of fille de France or "daughter of France"; commonly, she would be referred to either as Madame Henriette or Madame Seconde.

Henriette Anne and Louise Élisabeth were handed over to the care of the Duchesse de Tallard, who served as governess to the children of France - that is, the royal children. Despite the initial disappointment over their gender, the king soon came around; their mother, Marie Leszczynska, doted on them as much as she could but was soon occupied with adding to their nursery.

The two girls were inseparable and are even portrayed standing side by side at the age of 10. Not much was said of their childhood - generally, the education of girls were not considered to be of much importance, so there are few direct references to their childhood's earliest years. Both Henriette and Louise Élisabeth were brought up in the gilded halls of Versailles; their first seven years were spent entirely in the company of women with the exception being the male guardsmen or valets.

As the daughters of a king, it was expected that their august father would arrange prestigious marriages for them. Despite not being more than minutes older, Louise Élisabeth was the initial focus for such plans. To the chagrin of almost everyone, the choice fell on the Infante Philip of Parma. The arrangement was reached when the girls were 12 years old and Henriette had to bid adieu to her sister.

Having grown up together, Henriette reacted to the loss with the expected sadness and seemed to dearly miss her twin. Yet, she was not left alone in the children's rooms - far from it. After her own birth, the queen had given birth to a boy, Louis Ferdinand, and another girl, Madame Adélaide, both of whom were likewise raised at the palace. Another four girls were born to the royal couple but they were cared for at the Abbey of Fontevraud at this time.

Louise Élisabeth (blue) and
Henriette Anne (pink)

Despite her young age, Henriette - who had assumed the title of Madame upon her sister's marriage - was expected to partake in the everyday life at Versailles. This included the royal hunts which she joined at age 16 and the trips to the Opera which followed at 17. That same year, Henriette was officially given her own household.

At this stage the court were eagerly awaiting news of whom Madame Henriette would be wedded to. However, to the astonishment of all, nothing new was coming on that front. Despite being well into her marrying years (by the standards of the time) the king does not appear to have made any particular advances on her behalf. For a daughter of France, this was strange enough but the character of the young woman in question added to the mystery.

Henriette was an ideal bride by 18th century standards. She was considered to be beautiful - more so than her sisters - and possessed a calmness that soothed those around her. Her gentleness was well-noted as were her pristine manners and her shyness. Combined with her taste for music and her talent of having "no enemies at court" (largely attributed to her having few - if any - political inclinations) this made Henriette a desirable bride indeed.

When looking at her portraits, her claim to beauty does not seem unmerited. Her almond-shaped eyes were dark blue and her eyebrows remarkably dark. Her mouth appears rather small but with rosy, voluptuous lips. Likewise, her figure was fine and her complexion healthy.

The young Henriette shown at one of her
favourite pastimes

Yet, no husband appeared on the horizon. It is not clear whether this situation was of Henriette's own choosing - after all, noted as being her father's favourite daughter, he would not have forced her into marriage. While the Prince de Conti offered himself, Henriette is alleged to have had her eyes set on another princely presence: the Duc de Chartres. As the son and heir of the Duc d'Orléans, he could certainly match her lineage and his fortune was already immense. The matter went so far that Louis XV gave his approval to the match which could indicate that Henriette herself was not opposed to it. However, her father would soon change his mind and revoke his approval - after all, should his only son die, the next male in line would be the Duc d'Orléans. If the king were to bestow his daughter on this part of the family their claim to the throne would be too strong. So, the match was called off and by 1743 the Duc de Chartres married another cousin.

Meanwhile, Henriette maintained a fierce loyalty to her sister who was growing increasingly discontent at her lot in Parma. Louise Élisabeth had expected more of a marriage than a prince with no prospects of ever taking a throne. While she could do nothing about the choice of brother-in-law, Henriette could - and did - do what she could to further her sister's interests at the French court.

Piety was another strong streak in Madame Henriette's character; together with her siblings she grew to strongly dislike her father's taste for mistresses. While she was more than pleased to welcome her sister, Louise Élisabeth, back to Versailles for a year in 1748, she was less so when Louise Élisabeth warmed to Madame de Pompadour. This led to the only reported schism between the sisters.

Henriette portraying the element fire - she 
was 23 at this time

Around the same time, Henriette would welcome a new sister-in-law to her family, when Marie Josèphe of Saxony was married to Louis Ferdinand. It would seem that the two women struck up a friendship and Henriette was widely credited with having helped Louis Ferdinand overcome his sorrow for his first wife and accept his new.

Her relationship with her father was also cause of much comment. It had already been noted that Louis XV seemed to prefer her to her sisters and their close relationship continued even after the cancelled marriage proposals. Henriette seemed to have had the knack of understanding her father's often restless and melancholic disposition like few - if any - others did.

As the year 1752 dawned, Henriette partook in the usual festivities including sledge rides with her parents and siblings. One such took place on 7 February and shortly after she began to complain of feeling unwell. Initially there was no need for concern. Henriette was a healthy, young woman and catching a common cold would not have been surprising given the season. However, it was not a common cold - it was small pox. Just three days later - on 10 February - Henriette Anne died at the age of just 24.

Etiquette: To Sit or Not to Sit?

The etiquette that ruled the court of France touched on every part of everyday life - including something as mundane as sitting. Who could sit when and in the company of whom was entirely dependent on social status, rank or situation. 

The Tabouret - a Coveted Symbol

The right to a tabouret - a chair without a back - was preserved for a very small circle of women: duchesses, princesses of the blood and princesses d'étrangères (foreign princesses). That particular privilege quickly established the superior rank of these titled ladies - especially when in company of ladies who were not entitled to sit. As such, it is hardly surprising that it was a right that was often hotly contended. 

Over the years several other groups of court ladies (and their husbands) attempted to expand the circle of who could claim a tabouret. For instance, the Marèchaux argued that their wives should be entitled to one too but were eventually overruled. 

Since the tabouret was a symbol of honour, the court naturally made a ceremony of it. The first time an entitled woman were to claim her tabouret - for instance, a newly married duchess - it would be brought forward by one of the valets. It was customary that the lady presented the valets with 100 pistoles on this occasion. 

The tabouret also featured on the day of a duchess' presentation. When she had been officially presented to the queen, Her Majesty would then graciously offer her to take a seat upon a tabouret.

Initially, it was only the duchesses and princesses of the blood who were entitled to a tabouret. However, the king soon expanded the circle to include the daughters of princesses of the blood (and foreign princesses) with a single stipulation: they had to wait for the king to officially ask them to be seated. In contrast, a duchess could merely claim her seat as she entered.

One of the most famous anecdotes regarding the right to a tabouret occurred when the newly-minted Duchesse de Ventadour entered the king's salon only to find that no tabouret had been made available for her. The befuddled valets hesitated until Madame de Sévigné exasperated exclaimed: "Oh give it to her, she certainly bought it dear enough". The celebrated letter writer was quite right - the Duc de Ventadour was not only infamously ugly but rather depraved, too.

A tabouret belonging to the Comtesse d'Artois

Gentlemen, remain standing!

Whereas the duchesses and princesses could take a seat, the court's gentlemen were rarely allowed to sit in the presence of the king and queen. Rather, they were required to remain standing. That changed, however, when there were no ladies present at all.

This would typically be the case when the king dined à petit couvert - that is "in private", or as private as a king could eat during Louis XIV's reign. At such occasions, gentlemen were the only ones present but not everyone were allowed to sit. For instance, neither princes of the blood nor cardinals were ever asked to sit with Louis XIV during his meals.

In comparison, it was not unknown for the king to ask his immediate family members to take a seat. This would primarily be his brother, his (legitimate) son and the his grandsons. Even so, they were never sure of being asked and had to make do with a less comfortable chair than that of the king.

As can be seen, the gentlemen are standing while
the king is sitting

The Armchair

At court, only the king and queen (and on very rare occasions Monsieur) were sitting in armchairs when in company - the only ones who would share this honour were visiting monarchs. It did not matter how old the king was in this respect; when the juvenile Louis XV was still a child, he would be taken weekly to Versailles where he was placed in an armchair and educated in matters of state by men such as the Regent (Philippe II d'Orléans) and Cardinal Dubois - all sitting in lesser chairs.

The armchair was also used a symbol of power in other manners. For instance, if a duchess was introduced to the queen, the latter would be receiving her in an armchair. That was solely reserved for duchesses. At council, too, the chair was a symbol of royal presence. While the king was always seated in such a chair, his councillors had to make do with armless chairs - even when the king did not participate in the council session, his armchair would be present.

Even when the nuclear royal family retired into the "privacy" of their apartments, the rules were not relaxed. In his later years, Louis XIV made it a habit of going into his private apartment with his entire family after dinner and rest there for about an hour. The doors were opened so the court could observe them and those who did would have noticed the king sitting in his armchair, Monsieur in either an armchair too or a similar chair and the princesses on low stools - the princes, however, were always standing. The family were not spread out according to their own whims but were seated according to rank.

Finally, the king would usually receive ambassadors while sitting in his armchair. On these occasions, he would be the only one sitting at all.

Even surrounded by his closest heirs, the king
alone gets an armchair

Circumventing the rules

Like any other set of rules, people spent remarkable amounts of time attempting to circumvent them - with varying success. 

The so-called "non-titled" ladies - anyone below the rank of duchess - could sit in the presence of the king and queen if they were gambling with them, especially during the queen's gambling balls. This was naturally seized upon by the numerous countesses and marquises who would otherwise not be permitted to take a seat near royalty. That was also the case, if they were at theatrical performance.

Another ingenious method of avoiding standing in the presence of the queen was concocted by the very same class of ladies. Traditionally, the queen's ladies had often been employed in needlework but that was all but impossible to do standing. Therefore, it was accepted that a lady was allowed to sit in the queen's apartment if she was actively engaged in embroidery.

Snippets of Etiquette

It is further worth noticing a few other pieces of etiquette concerning the act of sitting that would have been followed punctually by the court.

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No gentleman were to touch the back of a chair if a lady was sitting in it - it would be seen as an immense sign of disrespect

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Princes of the Blood could not sit with the ladies at the front rows of a theatrical performance - that particular right belonged solely to the Sons of France

⚜

If a cardinal held his position by virtue of a hereditary bishop-peerage, he was allowed to be seated when with the queen - but not with the king

⚜

The wives of ambassadors were permitted to sit when observing the queen's dinners but those of other delegates were not

Anecdotes

Considering how often the matter of sitting down occurred during the day, it is hardly surprising that the court memoirs abound with anecdotes of this particular branch of etiquette. To modern readers the vast majority seems ridiculous but it was taken deadly serious by the courtiers.

Only princes of the blood were allowed to sit with the Duchesse de Bourgogne while she dined. When the court went on one of its brief sojourns at Meudon, she contrived a way to engage in conversation with men below that rank by sitting on an armrest. Technically, it could not be said that the respective gentlemen had overstepped and thus she found a loophole.

Mesdames Adélaide, Victoire and Sophie were sticklers for etiquette but there is at least one instance where they relaxed the rules a bit. One of their ladies was married to a Monsieur de Béon who served as an officer of the king's bodyguard. Before Marie Antoinette elevated the officers who did not enjoy the rank of captain by inviting them to her balls, the officers were not considered to be particularly worthy of respect. This meant that although a friend of Mesdames, M. de Béon could not sit at their table when he was on active duty. He was only permitted this once when off-duty because Mesdames relented.