Impot du Sang: The Price of Nobility

Military service was the traditional avenue of service for aristocratic men - the older branches of the French aristocracy particularly distinguished themselves from the newer, bourgeoisie nobility whose very nobility had been bestowed on them due to bureaucratic services. Those families who had earned their nobility by military service was known as the noblesse d'épée (nobility of the sword) whereas the newer ones were referred to as the noblesse de robe (nobility of the robe). 

Naturally, warfare included an obvious risk of injury or death - not to mention the financial loss incurred by the families who had to pay for their own equipment, transportation, food etc. during campaign. During the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI, France was involved in 27 conflicts. These varied from minor skirmishes with foreign countries to full-blown wars such as the Thirty Years' War or the War of the Austrian Succession.

The losses of three families are further explored in this post: Montmorency, Choiseul and Rochechouart. These families all suffered particularly from the French conflicts. In the period of 1621 - 1762, the Choiseul family lost 24 (!) men to warfare while another 4 were injured. Meanwhile, Montmorency (1632 - 1760) experienced 12 fatalities and 13 injuries while the house of Rochechouart (1621-1746) was reduced by 11 men with a further 6 suffering severe injuries.

Rather morbid, this duty had been referred to as the "impot du sang" - the blood tax.

Montmorency 

Georges de Montmorency, Vicomte de Roullers

Killed at the siege of Arras, 1640

Guy de Montmorency-Laval-Bois-Dauphin (unknown first-name)

This gentleman was wounded at the siege of Mardick (13 August 1646) but survived. However, he was relocated to Dunkirk where he was wounded again; this second injury proved to be fatal and he died that same year.

François-Ignace de Montmorency, Comte d'Esterre 

Served as a cavalry captain when he was killed at the battle of Lens in 1684

Gilles de Montmorency-Laval, Chevalier de Bois-Dauphin

Killed during a skirmish in the outskirts of Stenay, 1650

Jacques de Montmorency-Laval, Marquis de Bois-Dauphin

Killed at the siege of Candie, August 1669

Charles de Montmorency-Laval, Marquis de Bois-Dauphin (likely the successor of the man above)

Killed during the defense of Woerden, 1672, when the dutch made sortie against the French 

Charles de Montmorency

Fatally wounded at the battle of Maastricht in 1673

X de Montmorency 

Had his thigh broken by a musket while serving at Mayence, 1689

Henri de Montmorency

Killed at Mayence, 1689, at the age of 18

X de Montmorency

Was also present at Mayence where he was killed in September 1689

Henri-François de Montmorency, Duc de Luxembourg

Maréchal de France and captain of the king's bodyguards, he was wounded at the battle of Rethel in 1650, at the siege of Valenciennes and again - a wound to his hand - in 1678

Léon de Montmorency, Marquis de Fosseuse

Killed at the battle of Marsaille in 1693

X de Montmorency, Comte d'Esterre 

Wounded in 1700 after which he returned to service. He received a fresh wound to the throat which he somehow survived and was made Knight of the Golden Fleece for his troubles.

Charles de Montmorency, Prince de Robecque

Wounded at Landau in 1703

X de Montmorency, Chevalier de Luxembourg

Wounded on 18 October 1705 near Serès

Claude-Roland de Montmorency, Comte de Laval

Wounded by a cannon ball before Nice in December 1705

François de Montmorency, Marquis de Montmorency

Knight of the Saint-Louis, François was wounded in the neck on 18 June 1712 while giving chase to enemy troops

François de Montmorency-Laval

Shot in the jaw at the siege of Fribourg on 13 October 1712 which killed him

Paul-Sigismond de Montmorency, Duc de Châtillon

Another Knight of the Saint-Louis, Paul-Sigismond was also a brigadier of the king's army when he was seriously wounded in the leg at Nerwinde in 1692 - he survived and lived until 1731.

Charles-François-Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg, Duc de Piney-Luxembourg

Undoubtedly one of the most titled persons on this list, he was also duke of Beaufort-Montmorency and prince of both Tingry and d'Aigremont. He was likewise wounded at Nerwinde in 1693.

X de Montmorency de Fosseux

Knight of Malta and simply reported as having "died in the king's service"

Charles-Auguste de Montmorency, Prince de Robecque

Grandee of Spain, Charles-Auguste was wounded by a musket shot in the arm at Chiari in 1701, received another wound in 1705 before being finally "lightly" wounded in the neck in 1709.

Christian-Louis de Montmorency-Luxembourg, Prince de Tingry

Knight of Saint-Louis and Maréchal de France, he was wounded when battling the Habsburg forces in 1705 at Mantes

X de Montmorency-Laval, Marquis de Laval

Wounded at Raucoux in 1746

Joseph-Pierre de Montmorency, Comte d'Olonne 

Head of Schomberg's regiment, he was wounded on 11 August 1760 at Ober-Istingen

Choiseul

Charles de Choiseul, Marquis de Praslin

Charles was a Maréchal de France who had participated in 53 sieges and 27 battles - clearly a career soldier, he had sustained 22 battle wounds over his career.

Henri-Louis de Choiseul, Comte de Sorcy

Lieutenant-general and colonel of a regiment bearing his own name, Henri-Louis was seriously injured at Denain in 1742

 

Marc-Gabriel-Florent-Christophe de Choiseul-Beaupré

Colonel of the Navarre Regiment, he was wounded by a gunshot at the battle of Laufeldt in 1747

Claude-Antoine-Cleriadus de Choiseul-Beaupré

Lieutenant-general and a knight of Saint-Louis was wounded by two strikes by a saber in 1762 - he survived but was later guillotined in 1792

César I - founder of the
ducal, and martial, house
of Choiseul

Maximilien de Choiseul

Serving as a cornet in the king's cavalry, Maximilien was killed in the siege of Spire in 1644

Chrétien de Choiseul

Brother of Maximilien, he was killed while on campaign in Germany

Giles de Choiseul, Vicomte d'Hostel (also referred to as the Comte d'Hostel)

A Maréchal de Camp, Giles was also a lieutenant-colonel when he was killed in the siege of Saint-Ya in 1644.

Antoine de Choiseul-Beaupré, Seigneur d'Aillecourt

A major in the Duc d'Orléans' cavalry regiment, he was fatally wounded in the battle of Lens (1648). He was taken as a prisoner of war and would succumb to his wounds while in captivity.

César de Choiseul

Knight of Malta who died at the battle of Cremone in 1648. He was 20 years old at the battle - a bittersweet fact is that his father (the Duc de Choiseul) would go on to win that particular battle.

Charles de Choiseul, Comte de Plessis  

Brother of César, Charles was a Maréchal de Camp when he died at the battle of Rethel in 1650

X de Choiseul

His death was announced in the Mercure Gallante, but unfortunately, his first-name is not clearly recorded.  He was the brother of César and Charles - however, he might have been an illegitimate brother. He died at the siege of Ast in 1644.

Alexandre de Choiseul, Comte de Plessis-Praslin

Yet another brother of César and Charles, Alexandre was killed at 38 by a cannon ball at the taking of Arnheim, 1672. He had initially been accepted into the Church but left the clergy to join the army.

Charles de Choiseul

Killed at the battle of Cassel in 1677

François de Choiseul

Killed at the siege of Candie, 1668

Adrien de Choiseul, Seigneur de Vauteau

Killed at the siege of Condé 

Jean-Baptiste-Gaston de Choiseul, Comte d'Hostel and Marquis de Praslin

He was another career soldier who had achieved the rank of lieutenant-general who had been seriously injured at the siege of Iprès in 1678. He later had his hand broken by a bullet during the battle of Cassano (1705) - he continued fighting until he was shot through the torso. He was taken to the ducal palace of Milan where he died after several hours of agony.

Claude-Bernard de Choiseul

Killed in Germany, 1679

Pierre de Choiseul

Unlike his relatives, Pierre joined the navy where he was killed during the bombardment of Algiers in 1683.

César-Auguste II de Choiseul, Duc de de Choiseul

Serving as Premier Gentilhomme of the Duc d'Orléans, the duke was mortally wounded when he led the siege of Luxembourg in 1684 - a bomb (likely a cannon ball) exploded right near him. He was not yet 20 years old.

François-Joseph de Choiseul

Knight of Malta who was killed at the Battle of Nerwinde of 1693

Cleriadus de Choiseul, Marquis de Lanques

Died at the head of his regiment in the 1690's

X de Choiseul

Another Knight of Malta and another man whose name does not appear clearly. He was killed at Spire, 1703.

Charles de Choiseul, Marquis de Meuze

Also killed at Spire

François-Joseph de Choiseul, Comte de Choiseul and Baron de Beaupré

Killed during a naval battle in 1711

François de Choiseul-Ambouville 

Served as an ensign in the navy when he was killed at Algiers on 27 June 1683

Comte de de Choiseul-Beaupré

Captain of his vessel, he was killed in action on 18 May 1711

François-Louis de Choiseul-Meuze

Colonel of the Regiment of the Dauphin, he was killed at Anvers on 31 May 1746

As can be seen, the house of Choiseul paid heavily for their military duty towards the king. Few - if any - noble family lost as many men during such a relatively short period. As a further example, the head of the house - César Auguste III - participated in nine conflicts over the span of 23 years. In the 1670's, especially, César Auguste was continuously absent as he was at war in 1672, 1674, 1675, 1677 and 1678. During these years, he travelled to various fronts, including in the Netherlands and Belgium. In total, he spent 32 years in active service.

Such service was an ideal opportunity for the king to reward obvious fidelity. To be sure, Louis XIV fully appreciated this concept and did not fail on his part. César Auguste went from colonel of an infantry regiment to maréchal de France (and lieutenant-general), made First Gentleman of the Bedchamber to the Duc d'Orléans and was made a Knight of the Saint-Esprit.

Particularly the family of Charles de Choiseul and Marie de Porcherot saw more than their fair share of the "impot du sang" - they had eight children of which four sons died in war: Charles, François, Pierre and Claude-Bernard.

The Battle of Spire, 1703, which killed off 
numerous men from the Choiseul-family

Rochechouart

Guy de Rochechouart, Seigneur de Châtillon-de-Roy

Killed at the siege of Saint-Jean d'Angely in 1621

Jean-Louis de Rochechouart, Baron de Barbozan

Died during the religious wars, near Parmiers

X de Rochechouart, Comte de Vivonne

Wounded while passing the Rhine in 1672

X de Rochechouart, Seigneur de Clermont

Captain of the light horse, he was killed at Maastricht in 1673

François de Rochechouart

Killed at the battle of Seneff, 1674

X de Rochechouart, Duc de Vivonne

General of the king's galleys, he defeated the Spanish fleet at Messina; during that battle he was wounded and then created Maréchal of France

Charles-François de Rochechouart, Comte de Limoges 

Fatally wounded at Ypres in 1678

Louis-Victor de Rochechouart, Duc de Mortemart 

Another well-titled man, Louis-Victor was also Duc de Vivonne, Prince de Tonnay-Charente, Viceroy of Sicily and Premier Gentilhomme of the King's Bedchamber. He was wounded at the siege of Lille in 1667 and then again (seriously) while crossing the Rhine in 1672.

X de Rochechouart-Jussac

Killed at the Battle of Fleurus, 1690

Charles de Rochechouart, Marquis de Montpipeau

Killed at Leuze, 1691, at age 30

Louis de Rochechouart, Duc de Mortemart

Was considerably wounded at the beginning of the Battle of Eckeren but persisted fighting 

François-Charles de Rochechouart, Comte de Rochechouart

Shot in the arm at the Battle of Guastalla in 1734

X de Rochechouart

Killed during a skirmish against a force of hussars at Eins, 1734

Charles-Auguste de Rochechouart, Duc de Rochechouart

Grandee of Spain and Knight of the Saint-Louis, he served Louis XV as Premier Gentilhomme of the Bedchamber. He received two wounds at Ettingen, 1743, which he eventually died from

Pierre-Paul de Rochechouart

Killed at the Battle of Plaisance, 1746

X de Rochechouart, Chevalier de Rochechouart

Colonel of the Anjou-regiment, wounded in action on 10 August 1746, near Tidon

X de Rochechouart, Chevalier de Rochechouart

Killed at the battle of Turin, 1706 - it is rather sad that even the book on the history of the Rochechouart (written by a Rochechouart) does not even record his name

Louis-Victor de Rochechouart

Movie Review: Jeanne du Barry (2023)

Starting off a new round of movie reviews, I have chosen five factors to be considered: historical accuracy, costumes, casting, locations and attention to detail.

Historical accuracy 

The initial part of the movie correctly show the early years of Madame du Barry but towards the end of the movie, the producers seem to have taken active steps to imbue Madame du Barry's story with a more dignified ending.

For instance, in the movie, Jeanne is constantly at Louis XV's side while he is dying from smallpox - in reality, he was nursed by his daughters, not Jeanne. Once he officially renounces her in order to receive the sacraments, there is a dramatic scene in which she nearly leaves quietly in a carriage (as she actually did) but then bolts back over the courtyard, forces her way into the antechamber and is permitted by Louis Auguste, the dauphin, to say a last goodbye.

Throughout the movie, Louis Auguste (later Louis XVI) is shown to be the only one in the royal family who shows her any kindness. In reality, he had no regard for his father's mistress and absolutely ignored her. But at least he is present; both of his brothers and sisters are completely cut from the movie, even when all the royal children gather at their father's apartment throughout the movie. Instead, Louis is presented as the sole child of the next generation, thus cutting four children, three of whom would themselves become monarchs: the Comtes de Provence and d'Artois as well as Madame Clothilde. Marie Leszczynska, too, is mentioned but only as being "discreet" and then conveniently dying without appearing on screen.

The movie focuses on her life before and at court - the last shot of the main character shows her disconsolate in a barren cell at a nunnery. The 15 years she spent at Louveciennes are not included which is reasonable considering the otherwise overly long movie. As is typical for period dramas, the fate of the protagonist is explained by writing on the screen - unfortunately, it is not quite accurate.

For one, it is claimed that Marie Antoinette eventually turned from her bitterest enemy to a supporter. While Marie Antoinette did plead her case and eventually convinced Louis XVI to release Jeanne from the convent and let her live at Louveciennes, it is a massive stretch to imagine that the two women became friendly. In fact, they never saw each other again and certainly did not correspond. Marie's goodwill was a typical display of kindness and magnanimity from her side which was likely gratefully accepted by Jeanne.

Finally, the last words of Jeanne are recorded - or are they? The movie claims that her last words are the poetic "Please Monsieur, one more moment" followed by the even more serene "I have loved life too much to die in such a manner". While it is fairly accepted that she did plead for one more moment, the latter appear to be somewhat invented for the movie; sadly, the poor Jeanne was utterly terrified and refused to go quietly to her death. She (understandably) panicked while being transferred to the scaffold, crying out "You are going to hurt me!" - heartbreaking but not nearly as dignified as that last statement displayed on the screen.

And what of the court? A recurring theme is the truly bizarre way of leaving a room in a society where it was forbidden to turn one's back on the king. It is shown that people took tiny steps, scurrying backwards towards the door - while they did walk backwards, there is nothing to indicate that they scurried like cockroaches which seems to have been added for comedic effect.

However, the king's routine is briefly mentioned which is fairly accurate - council meetings, hunting, dinners etc.

But then there is the comment regarding Madame de Pompadour, Jeanne's predecessor. She is outright said to have created the Parc-aux-Cerfs to provide the king with women for her less pleasant duties as royal mistress. In fact, there is nothing to suggest that Madame de Pompadour did any such thing - on the contrary, every woman who emerged through the Parc-aux-Cerfs was a potential threat to her own position. Considering that that very threat is explicitly mentioned - even shown by the fact that Louis XV continues to sleep with other women in the movie - it is odd that the statement should be included at all.

Costumes

The costumes of the king's household are immaculate - particularly La Borde and the king's royal bodyguards. These rarely appear at all in movies about Versailles and if so, it is very briefly. Yet, this movie often put the king's household servants up front, particularly when the king is walking. He was always flanked by the royal bodyguards in their blue/red uniforms which is clearly represented.

Many of the costumes for the dauphin, dauphine and Louis XV are quite accurate - but then, something went wrong.

Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI

While Mesdames - with the exception of Louise, who (for some reason) is dressed like a March-sister from Little Women - are typically dressed in the panniered rococo-gowns, their wigs are outrageous. Particularly the choice for the presentation of Madame du Barry is downright bizarre, especially because the women surrounding them are wearing period-accurate hair.

A good example - notice the outrageous hair of the Mesdames to the left and the 
oddly Puritan ensemble of Madame Louise (brown dress)

Then there is the protagonist. Undoubtedly, her wardrobe has some accuracy to it - for instance, Madame du Barry was well-known to favour white gowns because the colour suited her particularly well. Stripes, too, were becoming increasingly popular. But then again, it seems like the same irrationality that seized the hairdresser of Mesdames also found Jeanne's wardrobe. Whether it is the modern wedding gown she wears for the feast upon Marie Antoinette's arrival or the gauzy, crinoline gown chosen for her mourning, it is just odd. 

Another example of the sheer oddity of Mesdames costumes

Just like Mesdames, no one else is dressed in a similar fashion and it is only sporadically for the main character which would rule out the Reign-tendency to dress historical characters in modern couture. Perhaps this is due to the fact that Chanel was chosen as the sole partner for the movie?

Credit: Chanel (yes, this is an actual
still from the movie)

For those who appreciate the details in costuming, the pannier used by Madame du Barry is very clearly shown in all its glory. Also, the attention to the costumes of the king's household is praiseworthy. La Borde's uniform is an exact replica of the ones worn by the officers in the king's household. His military household, too, is pristine in its blue/red uniform complete with both swords and halberds.  

Casting

Maïwenn Besco succeeded in bringing the easy-going nature of Madame du Barry forth; her ready laughter and saucy side is both very well represented. However, from a purely external point of view, the casting choice is somewhat odd. Madame du Barry was praised for angelic softness in her features with her rounded cheeks and soft nose and chin. In contract, Maïwenn Besco has gorgeous cheekbones sharp enough to cut oneself on, an aquiline nose and narrow chin - quite the opposite. 

Likewise, Madame du Barry was notoriously blonde whereas the dark tresses of Besco has been preserved for the movie. So, while Mäiwenn Besco clearly understood the complexities of du Barry's character, her look simply does not resemble the real Jeanne.

The real Jeanne du Barry

As can be seen, the rosy cheeks of Madame du Barry and those near-purple pale eyes are clearly on display. It does not help that the makeup chosen for Besco was often very heavy on the lips with focus on very dark red tones.

Maïwenn Besco

On the other hand, the choice of Pauline Pollmann for a teenaged Marie Antoinette is perfect. Pauline Pollman shared the archduchesses' golden locks, large blue eyes and soft lips. The makeup department certainly did everything to make Pollmann look the part - and for once, she actually looks like a teenager:

Pauline Pollmann as Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette as dauphine

Locations

While drones have clearly been used to give some beautiful shots of Versailles, the interior locations seem replicated in a studio. Only the Hall of Mirrors and the chapel appears to have been shot on location. For instance, a lot of the movie takes place in the king's private bedchamber but the room chosen for movie has nothing to do with the king's actual private bedchamber; its décor is completely off and even the windows' placement indicates that it is not the real deal.

The same can be said for the council chamber - in a scene in which Madame du Barry interrupts a council meeting, the room is fairly easy to examine from several perspectives. The room is clad in somewhat dark wooden panelling rather than the gloriously rococo council chamber of Versailles.

Even Madame du Barry's own apartment seems somewhat computer-reproduced. Her apartment was vast and luxuriously decorated but it is shown only briefly - only one room is shown in its full length - and even then, the attention seems to be deliberately drawn away from the room. For instance, when about to leave Versailles upon the death of Louis XV, the bedchamber of du Barry is almost entirely obscured by trunks and the camera focuses on her face and person. Overall, it gives the impression that the majority of the movie was not shot on location - perhaps they were not given permission?

It is, however, a nice touch that Marie Antoinette's arrival at court is observed from the birds'-eye-view of Madame du Barry's apartment - exactly where she would have seen her soon-to-be rival arrive.

Attention to detail

While the plot took some liberties with its accuracy, the producers did include some wonderful details. A personal favourite is the inclusion of the justaucorps bleu - these were the gentlemen who followed the king on his hunt by the king's explicit invitation. They were always 12 in number and wore a matching hunting suit of blue fabric. For a brief moment, when Louis XV (Johnny Depp) goes off hunting, a few gentlemen can be seen following him on horseback wearing the justaucorps. It is neither elaborated nor even noted in any particularity but is a treat nonetheless.

Another treat was the king's levée - it is seen in all its glory, even including the varying entrées - stages by which certain courtiers could access the king's chamber - and the sight of courtiers waiting in the king's antechamber if they did not have the entrées.