The Mystery of the Tiny Beds

As noted by a visitor to the blog, many who have visited Versailles - and other historical residences - have noted that the beds were remarkably small, especially compared to today. This might seem odd especially given the considerable proportions of the apartments.

One theory speculated that people used to sleep sitting upright which would not necessitate nearly as much room. While some people slept propped up on pillows for medical reasons - to prevent indigestion or lung issues - there is little evidence to suggest that it was common to sleep entirely upright all night. Rather, people would sleep somewhat lying down with pillows supporting the back. The reason for sleeping upright lies in superstition from the Middle Ages - only the dead or dying were lying flatly down. 

An explanation might be optical illusion. Many of the beds - including those at Versailles - are meticulously crafted pieces of furniture with all imaginable adornments. This flurry of ribbons, pillows or canopies all create the illusion that the bed is smaller than it actually is - especially when the pillars are considerably taller than the width of the bed. The curtains ensured both privacy for the occupant (convenient if one's servant is also sleeping in the room) but also helped retain some heat which was quite a challenge at Versailles. This is particularly the case for the four-poster beds whose heavy canopies often make the available sleeping area appear quite small. A good example is the bed in the apartment of Madame du Barry; upon first glance it looks quite short but is remarkably deep.

Private photo of mine taken in the apartment of 
Madame du Barry

Many of the parade beds - such as those of the king and queen - were meant to be used during the daily ceremonies that dominated court life. Both the lever (in the morning) and the coucher (in the evening) focused on respectively getting the royal in and out of bed. Naturally, they would be grander and more luxurious than a private bed might otherwise be. Most nobles residing at court would likely not have had room for a bed of similar proportions to that found in the royal chambers. Space was also a consideration before the move towards privacy which took off in the latter half of the 18th century. Prior to this period, it was common to receive visitors in one's bedroom which could therefore not be entirely occupied by a large bed.

Unusually, the queen's bed was larger than that of the king's. This was not due to childbirth - the birth itself taking place on a specialized birthing-bed - but rather the required act for that childbirth to take place at all. The queen never moved to the king's bed at night - on the contrary, the king would visit the queen's chamber for this purpose. Therefore, her bed needed to be wider than his.

The royal parade beds were also social indicators. The size of the canopy was dictated by the rank of the person owning the bed. For instance, only the higher-ranking aristocrats were permitted a canopy the width of the bed itself; the lower-ranking nobles had to make due with a smaller one. In this manner, the bed also became a status symbol.

Another private photo of mine - this time
of Marie Antoinette's bed

Finally, it should be kept in mind that people were slightly shorter a few centuries ago. While not as drastically shorter as has previously been theorised the average height was lower than it is today. For example, the French average height today is about 178 cm whereas it was 167 cm in the 18th century. Yet, several of the "main characters" of the court at Versailles were quite tall - Louis XVI measuring 1.93 cm, for instance. 

Interestingly, the trend of such small beds ended with the French Revolution - afterwards, even during the restoration, beds began assuming the proportions we know today and people began sleeping more like we do today.

The Corset Debacle of Marie Antoinette

Being synonymous with fashion excess and trendsetting, the contemporaries of Marie Antoinette were not always too pleased with the queen's choices. The most famous of her "shocking" creations was the flowing, sheer robe à la Reine, immortalized by Vigée le Brun. However, before she even queen, the young dauphine caused a stir on an issue that few - including both her mother and the Austrian ambassador - had expected: corsets.

The rigidly-tight whalebone corsets were a staple amongst the aristocratic ladies; its tightly-wound silhouette stands as one of the hall-marks of 18th century fashion. Yet, the newly arrived dauphine attempted to do away with the necessity of the harshest of corsets - those of whalebone. Already from an early age, the young Marie Antoinette preferred the less restricted fashion choices which were far from accepted by her contemporaries. Exceptions might have been more forthcoming had her reasons for ditching the corset been a pregnancy but that was far from the case.

Thus, shortly after arriving in France in May 1770, Marie Antoinette began refusing to don the traditional corset.

Marie Antoinette as dauphine

The problem was the grand habit which was the required uniform for court ladies for official occasions; it is the stereotypical silhouette of the late 18th century with the wide panniers, narrow waist and heavy silks. For a 15-year old girl, the garment was immensely heavy and made even more uncomfortable by the restricting corset. In desperation, Marie Antoinette's dame d'honneur (Madame Etiquette) complained that there was "no convincing Madame la Dauphine to wear a corset". 

Contemporary opinion believed that the corset was not merely a status symbol but a necessity to obtain a correct figure. In continuous attempts to make the dauphine regain the corset, one of most frequently used arguments was that her figure was already deteriorating. In an August-letter from Mercy-Argenteau to the Empress, he reported that the Comtesse de Noailles complained bitterly that the lack of a corset had rendered her charge's waist "misshapen and her right shoulder out of kilter". It was likely this missive which prompted the Empress to take personal action. As for the dauphine herself, she made no attempts at hiding the situation from her mother. She even wrote that she was growing larger around the waist as she was not wearing a corset anymore. Neither she nor Madame Etiquette appear to have taken into account that the famously slender teenager was growing in to a woman's body.

The corset - and Marie Antoinette's refusal to adopt it - was given a far greater meaning than the young girl could possibly have predicted herself. Whereas she saw it as an unnecessary and uncomfortable piece of clothing, others saw her rejection as the rejection of all things French. Immediately, such a seemingly trivial piece of "news" was spread to other European courts which had prompted the involvement of the Empress herself. The Comtesse de Noailles had attempted to get Louis XV to intervene personally but he had refused to meddle in the matter.

Reminding her daughter of her duty both towards king, husband and country (and, apparently corsets), Maria Theresia sent several Viennese corsets with her letter of admonishing from November 1770. To the Empress, this refusal was both baffling and unexpected. The Marie Antoinette she had neatly packed away in her gilded carriage was obedient and eager to please; however, the stubborn streak was beginning to show which she would retain for the rest of her life.

View of the interior of a corset, 1780

For the French, it was embarrassing. No lady of quality could be considered well-dressed without a corset, especially not one who held the position of first lady of the court. That the dauphine was not well-dressed was exactly what the visiting Countess Windischgrätz reported to her large acquaintance scattered across Europe. For a while there was a stalemate between a stubborn dauphine, an exasperated household and an irate mother. The end of the matter came in October 1771; its origin could be found not in the wardrobe but in the bedroom.

The arrival of the new Comtesse de Provence brought a new onslaught of complaints that the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis Auguste remained unconsummated. Despite being naturally slender, the constant eyes directed towards her midriff caused endless speculation of whether the dauphine had become pregnant or was "losing her figure" (at fifteen, mind you). This, in turn, kept the state of her marriage in an unpleasant spotlight which she desperately attempted to divert. Turning to the Austrian ambassador, Mercy-Argenteau for comfort, Marie Antoinette was finally convinced to wear the corset again. The much-tried ambassador reassured the Empress that there would be no fear for her figure if she continued in her improved ways.

Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duc de Bouillon

Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne was the last child born to Emmanuel Théodose de La Tour d'Auvergne and Marie Armande Victoire de La Trémoille; as the third son, there was little chance of Charles inheriting more than a smaller curtesy title. He was born on 16 July 1706 and spent his childhood in somewhat obscurity. At the age of eleven, his mother passed away and his father remarried to Louise Françoise Angélique le Tellier.

The home-life of Charles was changing. His new stepmother gave birth to a half-brother in 1718 before dying in 1719. This prompted his father to remarry again, this time to Anne Marie Christiane de Simiane who - in turn - had daughter. Like her predecessor, Anne also died young after just a few years of marriage. Despite being in his sixties' Charles' father remarried for the fourth time to the beautiful (and young) Louise Henriette Françoise de Lorraine who gave Charles another half-sister.

Thus, in the space of 12 years, Charles had had three stepmothers and three half-siblings. Little is known of the particulars of his personal upbringing which likely took place away from both court and his father. As he grew older, Charles' personal status would change considerably. His eldest brother had died before Charles was born but he was still the younger of two remaining son - until 1723.

The year 1723 turned out to be a turning point in Charles' life. His brother married the Polish-born Maria Karolina Sobieski - promptly Frenchified into Marie Caroline - before dying just ten days after their wedding. This premature death had two massive consequences for Charles: firstly, he was catapulted from the third son to the heir of the Duc de Bouillon and secondly, he was given a wife.

Charles Godefroy

The union between Charles and Marie Caroline was unexpected by outsiders. By Catholic law such a marriage required papal dispensation as the two were considered to be relatives due to Marie Caroline's first marriage. This dispensation was promptly acquired by Marie Caroline's sister, Clementina, but without either informing or asking permission from the bride's father. This caused a massive rift between Marie Caroline and her wealthy parents. That wealth happened to be the motif behind the hasty remarriage; the young woman had been given a massive dowry of 750.000 livres.

Marie Caroline became pregnant with their first child who was named Marie Louise Henriette Jeanne. Their second (and last) child was the son Godefroy Charles Henri.

By this time, the relationship had deteriorated rapidly; the couple officially separated in 1730 with Marie Caroline travelling to Poland to restore relations with her father. Meanwhile, Charles took up a liaison with none other than his last stepmother! 

The life of the Duc de Bouillon was characterised by libertinage, privilege and royal favour. At court, he had the advantage of being a favourite of Louis XV who often included him in his private dinners behind the scenes. Charles possessed no fewer than three of the most coveted positions at court: Grand Chambellan, Grand Écuyer and Grand Maître. These brought him both considerable income and influence, the latter boosted by his personal friendship with the king.

Indulging fully in the finer things in life, Charles had several affairs and dappled heavily in gambling. Unfortunately, he was not particularly skilled at the pastime - the Duc de Luynes claimed that his gambling debts amounted to over a million livres. Ironically, Charles owned several of the most beautiful properties in France which helped diminish the public appearance of financial troubles. He therefore had high hopes that Marie Caroline would reconcile with her immensely wealthy father.

Besides his gambling, his temper was apparently not entirely under control. An incident occurred at his country estate in 1731 which ended in a brawl between himself and the Duc de Durfort; the scuffle went so far as Durfort being stabbed.

Still, his contemporaries hesitated to label him entirely a bad egg. Despite his propensity for scandal, his ill-luck at gambling and his less desirable qualities, he was also said to possess integrity and bravado. In this manner, he resembled Louis XV whose own libertinage was counteracted by several strong, good qualities. 

Marie Caroline

Marie Caroline never returned from Poland; she died in 1740. Charles did not seem to care much about the loss of his estranged wife.

His financial issues caused him to sell his viscounty of Turenne to Louis XV. His relationship with the king only grew closer over the years; he would even act as intermediary between Louis XV and "Bonnie Prince Charlie" prior to the latter's arrest. His personal expenses must have been considerable; the Duc de Luynes reported that his annual income was about 500.000 livres with one of his counties being worth 250.000 livres.

One would imagine that a man of Charles' tastes would not care particularly much about the emerging Enlightenment ideas and that might have been true. Nevertheless, he came to the rescue of Rousseau whose Journal Encyclopédie was in dire danger of being strangled by external powers. Charles offered the tiny territory that was his duchy of Bouillon for the philosopher who then successfully published his work. Charles himself was not much in favour if these new ideas but the publishing meant creating a potentially lucrative income for his tiny duchy. It worked, as the editions were in demand and generated a small fortune.

By this time, Charles was getting on in age but still had enough spirit to engage in various liaisons. His affair with Mademoiselle de Verrières resulted in an illegitimate son, Charles Godefroy. 

Charles Godefroy died on 24 October 1771 at his estate of Montalet. 

The Complicated Family Relations of the Duc de Bouillon

Marriages between cousins were the norm rather than the exception for centuries; it was therefore not considered unusual and is still practiced in some areas today. Likewise, having official or public extramarital affairs were not necessarily scoffed at either.

However, even in such a society there were relations that caused starched eyebrows to be raised - and the Duc de Bouillon is a good example of that.

Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne was the result of a union between the houses of La Tour d'Auvergne and La Trémoille. As the son of a duke, he found himself at the very pinnacle of French society, even more so after the premature deaths of his two elder brothers which made him the heir. He was married to a Polish noblewoman in 1724. Her name was Maria Karolina Sobieska and she was nine years his senior which was quite unusual.

Charles Godefroy

What was even more unusual was the fact that she happened to be the widow of his late brother, Frédéric Casimir, who had died at just 20 - in 1723. That meant that immediately upon his death, arrangements were made for the young widow to be remarried to her brother-in-law. Sadly, the marriage between Maria Karolina and Frédéric Casimir must be amongst the shortest at Versailles. They had been married on 20th September 1723; ten days later, the bridegroom was dead, allegedly from the aftermath of a serious horse-riding accident. The fact that he also contracted smallpox - which he infected his new bride with - did not help matters.

The union between Maria Karolina and Charles Godefroy would have needed a papal dispensation as the governing law of the catholic church considered them to be already related. Maria's own relative, Clementina, personally wrote to the pope and was apparently successful. However, her father had not even been informed of the new match which left a deep rift between father and daughter. Their marriage would result in two children: Marie Louise and Godefroy Charles Henri. To make matters even more complicated, Maria had initially been considered as a bride for the brothers' father, Emmanuel Théodose.

The marriage was a disaster. The couple were not well-suited for each other which finally resulted in a public separation in the early 1730's. It is rather sad to think that Maria Karolina went to such great lengths to obtain the marriage only for it to turn out so poorly.

Maria Karolina

Having married his brother's widow, Charles Godefroy made another (more dubious) decision which would come dangerously close to incest. As was almost expected, Charles took a mistress. That in itself would not have raised many eyebrows if the object of his affection had not been his own step-mother!

Louise Henriette Françoise de Lorraine was notoriously beautiful with piercing dark eyes, an oval face and red lips. She had married Emmanuel Théodose in 1725 which made her the stepmother of a man who was a year older than herself. Five years later, her husband was dead which left her widowed at just 23 years old. She herself would die at 30 having made a name for herself as a woman with many lovers and few scruples.

Their affair was a massive scandal which garnered plenty of attention; after all, Emmanuel Théodose had only just died before his son and his widow got together. Their liaison caused considerable damage to the already terribly strained marriage of Charles Godefroy and Maria Karolina. It is said that the latter coolly commiserated with her husband on the loss of his "dear stepmother" - although the same letter also mused that her husband would surely not be too heartbroken.

The entire absurd family history ended somewhat tragically for most parties. Louise Henriette Françoise died young, Maria Karolina died alone in Poland (little regretted by her husband) and Charles Godefroy continued on in his debauched life.

Poudre à la Maréchale

Originally created by the Maréchale d'Aumont, this particular type of cosmetic dates back to either 1669 or 1675 depending on the source consulted. The powder - poudre - was used on the wearer's hair; such cosmetics were becoming increasingly popular as powdered wigs became a necessity in the fashion world.

Amongst the many attributes which made the poudre à la maréchale so popular was both its efficiency and its pleasant scents. Perfumed powders were gaining ground in a wide variety but the maréchale appears to have hit a particularly popular blend. The main perfumes in the powder were iris, coriander, rose, clove and tiger nut. However, these ingredients were far form the only ones used in the concoction. According to the Parfumeur Français, a proper version also contained orange blossom, sandalwood, lavender, cinnamon, lemon peel, marjoram, benzoin and labdanum. 

Whether they were all combined into the same batch is somewhat unclear but it does not seem terribly unlikely. The presence of some rather expensive ingredients certainly helped bring the price up - especially considering that some recipes called for ingredients imported from very specific places. Some were within France itself - such as roses from Provence - whereas others had to be brought in from abroad - like irises from Florence.

The main body of the powder was a type of starch which could become conveniently greasy enough to use on the intricate coiffures. As such, it was fairly widely used.

A rather unusual anecdote exist surrounding this powder. Allegedly, Madame de Pompadour received a mysterious snuff box with unidentified white powder traces. Fearing that it might be poison, she had her physician, Quesnay, examine the material. In a somewhat anticlimactic end, he concluded that the powder was poudre à la maréchale.

The popularity of the powder continued after the fall of the ancien regime; largely aided by the long-lasting effects of the powder.

Interestingly, the powder could also be combined with other products. If sold in smaller packages, they could be mixed with a lotion or pomade to imbue an otherwise bland concoction with its delicious - and heavy - scent. Furthermore, the scent achieved by the myriad of luxurious ingredients also made a popular perfume - still sold today by high-end perfumers. 

The House of Créquy

Originating in the 9th century, this family had its roots in Artois. Over the years, the family split into six separate branches of which one had become extinct by the ascension of Louis XIV to the French throne.   This left a total of five branches of which two would later merge.

However, it can be argued that there were as many as 18 branches as the family grew - this post focuses on these four primary families.

The Duc de Lesdiguières

The title had originally been created for François de Bonne de Lesdiguières whose only legitimate child was the daughter Madeleine. She married Charles de Blanchefort de Créquy, thus bringing the duchy into the Créquy-family after her father's death. Charles died just around the ascension of Louis XIV.

1) François de Bonne de Créquy & (1) Catherine de Bonne, (2) Anne de la Magdeleine 

François reached the rank of Marechal de camp and commanded the regiment of French Guards. He inherited most of his possessions through his mother which is why he added her surname - de Bonne - to his own.

François' first wife, Catherine, happened to be his aunt. The couple had no children which prompted Charles to remarry after her death.

Anne was marquise de Ragny in her own right. She was quite the desirable connection; as the only-child, she would inevitably bring her marquisate - with its considerable estate - into her husband's family. She was also the granddaughter of the Duc de Retz.

The couple had two children.

• François Emmanuel, Duc de Lesdiguières
• Charles-Nicolas, Marquis de Ragny

François

2) François Emmanuel de Créquy de Bonne & Paule Marguerite Françoise de Gondi

Besides his inevitable military career, François was an avid collector of art. He inherited the governorship of Dauphiné from his father alongside his ducal title.

Paule Marguerite Françoise was an impressive match. As the sole heiress of the Duc de Retz, she became the Duchesse de Retz in her own name as well as the marquise de La Garnache, Comtesse de Joigny and Baronne de Mortagne. Despite such an illustrious portfolio the choice of a Retz-bride was a risky one.  The Cardinal de Retz had opposed Louis XIV during the Fronde which placed the entire family in bad standing at the French court.

The couple had one child:

• Jean François Paul, Duc de Lesdiguières

Paule Marguerite Françoise

3) Jean François Paul de Créquy de Bonne & Louise Bernadine de Durfort

Serving as a brigadier in the king's army, Jean died unexpectedly young at just 25. His death followed severe injuries sustained in battle. The couple had no children; oddly enough, Louise did not remarry despite being just 23 years old when she became a widow.

Jean François Paul

Louise Bernardine

4) Alphonse de Créquy & Gabrielle Victoire de Rochechouart

Alphonse was a cousin to Jean François Paul. He was also the head of the fifth branch - that of the Comte de Canaples; he would later inherit his younger brother's possessions, too. He was a close friend of the English Charles II and thus had close ties to the English court. This connection was rather a fall-back as it was the result of a failed career at the French court. Lacking the talents of his brothers, Alphonse tried his luck across the Channel where he proved far more successful. 

Gabrielle was the niece of Madame de Montespan and thus a member of the influential Mortemart-family. She outlived her husband by 29 years.

The couple had no children which resulted in the extinction of the title in 1711.

The Prince de Poix

Antoine de Créquy had held the title for years but as a Catholic clergyman, he had no legitimate children. Upon his death, he left the title to his nephew, Antoine de Blanchefort, on the condition that he took up the name of Créquy again. He was a Créquy through his mother, Marie de Créquy. From thence, the family became known as the Blanchefort de Créquy. By the reign of Louis XIV, they were headed by:

1) Charles III de Blanchefort de Créquy & Anne de Beauvoir du Roure

Charles III never actually assumed the title as he predeceased his father, Charles II. Anne, on the other hand, lived a staggering 58 years longer.

The two had had three children:

• Charles, Prince de Poix and Duc de Créquy
• Alphonse, Comte de Canaples
• François, Marquis de Marines

2) Charles IV de Blanchefort de Créquy & Anne-Armande de Saint-Gelais

Charles IV was elevated to the title of Duc de Créquy by Louis XIV who also made him governor of Paris. The couple enjoyed immense royal favour and even hosted the English royal family-in-exile at their private estates. Charles' good fortune stemmed from his loyalty to the crown during the Fronde where he had placed himself at the disposal of Anne of Austria and Louis XIV - the latter ensured his further elevation at court.

Anne-Armande held the position of dame d'honneur to queen Marie-Thérèse which placed her in a position of immense influence at court. She held an enviable reputation at court; considered beautiful, pious and respectful, Anne-Armande and Charles seemingly had a good relationship. When he died in 1687, she permanently retired from court.

The could had just one child:

• Marguerite, Duchesse de Thouars

The title went to the La Trémoille-family after the heiress, Marguerite de Blanchefort de Créquy, married the Duc de Thouars.

The Comte de Créquy-Bernieulles

Probably the shortest-lived branch of the five, this one counted just a single occupant:

1) Alexandre de Créquy & Marie Maignard

Alexandre was the eldest of seven children of which only one had children - and that was not Alexandre but his sister, Renée, who had married Gabriel de Mailloc. Alexandre had inherited all the titles of his father which included the counties of Créquy-Bernieulles and Cléry as well as the barony of Combon.

Marie Maignard was a member of the noblesse de robe as her father was the President of the Parliament in Normandy. The couple had no children, so the title went to Renée's son: Gabriel-René de Mailloc. This also meant that it officially exited the Créquy-family, as Gabriel-René went by his father's name.

The Marquis de Créquy

1) Philippe de Créquy & Louise de Vieuxpont

Philippe could be classed as a member of the lower nobility by the rank of his titles; he was a seigneur of seven different locations as well as baron of Bainquetun. However, this left him very little leverage when it came to advancement. 

Louise came with a connection to the Beauffremont-family as well as being the daughter of the seigneur of three different places. The couple married in 1624 and had three children:

• Philippe II
• Jean II
• Louis 

2) Jean II de Créquy & Madeleine Le Fèvre de Caumatin 

Jean inherited the titles and land when his elder brother, Philippe, died without an heir. He followed his father's footsteps into the army where he was made maréchal de camp in 1651. 

Madeleine was the daughter of a state councillor who had also served as ambassador to Switzerland. The couple had seven children:

• Henri-Jacques, Marquis de Créquy
• Jean-François
• Louis
• Madeleine
• Unknown female
• Henri Alexandre, Marquis d'Hemont
• Antoinette, abbess

3) Henri-Jacques de Créquy & (1) Marie-Marthe de Manneville, (2) Marie-Antoinette de Musnière

Henri-Jacques elevated the family considerably from the somewhat obscurity of being seigneurs to being marquises. This opened a whole new playing-field for the family, including possibilities for further advancements.

Marie-Marthe was dame de Baroménil in her own right. She gave her husband four children:

• Unknown male
• Henri-Charles
• Madeleine
• Marie-Catherine, dame de Baroménil

Marie-Antoinette was the baronne d'Espinefort - she seemingly had one child:

• Jacques-Charles, Marquis de Créquy

4) Jacques-Charles de Créquy & Marie-Louise d'Auxy

The family continued to rise during this generation, as Jacques-Charles added the title of Comte de Gensay as well as the baronies of Benin (like the country) and Vineville. Jacques-Charles was a particularly successful soldier - he steadily rose through the ranks until he became a Lieutenant General. He was also made governor of Dommes and served as the Duc d'Orléans' chamberlain.

Marie-Louise was in the service of the Princesse de Conti as her dame d'honneur. 

The couple had two children:

• Marie, Comtesse d'Aubry
• Anne Madeleine Françoise, Comtesse de Mesmes

As their daughters were unable to inherit the family's growing number of titles, these went to Charles-Henri de Créquy, the descendant of Henri Alexandre, Marquis d'Hemont. This had the advantage of keeping the title within the family.