The Incomplete Education of Louis XVI

In 1760, the young Louis Auguste held the title of Duc de Berry and was third in line to the throne of France - at this point in time, few expected that he would one day become Louis XVI, as both his father and his elder brother stood to inherit before him. At the age of 6, the Duc de La Vauguyon was appointed as the governor of the young prince - a choice that the pupil himself would later come to deeply resent.

As a royal prince, his education was widespread and largely dictated by his father, Louis Ferdinand: religious studies, latin, geography, history, chemistry, mathematics, physics and astronomy were amongst the fields covered. Later, he would add English to his list of languages. The young Louis appeared to have had a natural talent for especially geography - a subject he would devote many hours to as an adult. During his lessons, he would draw up detailed maps of Versailles and its surroundings. Likewise, he seems to have had a firm grasp on the otherwise labyrinthine system of finances which can be seen from his numerous attempts at financial reform in the late 1780's.

Rather unusually, both the Dauphin and Dauphine took an active part in their sons' education. Twice a week, Louis Auguste and his brothers would be taken to their mother's apartments where they would be heard in the lessons of the week. This must have been somewhat awe-inspiring for a naturally timid boy, especially considering that both his younger brothers were more self-confident.

Louis XVI while Duc de Berry

La Vauguyon often tasked his pupil with writing smaller treatises on rather dry, but important subjects. The first of these had the lengthy title: "Moral and political maxims drawn from Télemarque concerning the science of kings and the happiness of peoples". Ironically, Télemarque had been the main character in a book published by Fénelon in 1699 which had subsequently been banned by Louis XIV for being too outspoken in its criticism of the absolute monarchy. Yet it was chosen by La Vauguyon for the Sun King's successor.

The Duc de Bourgogne, died unexpectedly in 1761 and his father followed him to the grave just four years later. This left the eleven-year old Louis Auguste as the new dauphin. From a purely educational viewpoint, the change had an immediate impact on his lessons. Added to the curriculum of courtly and scholarly virtues was now the awe-inspiring lessons in kingship.

On La Vauguyon's urging, Moreau and Berthier drew up no less than 35 "reflections" on the meaning of kingship. These were then drilled into the head of the king-to-be over a period of three years. It is a testament to Louis' memory skills that even La Vauguyon was impressed with how well he understood the reflections. These reflection gives a clear insight into the values distilled into the young man. Amongst them were the doctrine that a good king's sole purpose was to make his people happy and virtuous; likewise, he was to refrain from bloodshed - both at home and in war - unless absolutely unavoidable. This was not merely an education in how to subdue and discipline his people - it was a lesson in ruling with compassion and justice.

One particular aspect of Louis' education appears to have had a profound effect on him. By nature, Louis Auguste was shy and preferred to keep to himself. This characteristic can only have been furthered by the instruction from his confessor, Abbé Soldini, to "never let people read your mind". Likewise, he was taught that as king, it was vital that he did not become too open with his surroundings. Given such instructions it is hardly a wonder that the adult-Louis would have seen little reason to break off his natural reserve.

The Duc de La Vauguyon

Religion had an intense influence on the dauphin's education. Both his parents belonged to the Dévot party and most of his tutors were chosen accordingly. Thus, his education would be heavily influenced by religious dogmas.

One thing that stands out from the manner in which Louis Auguste was educated is that he was rarely urged to reach his own decisions. The teaching methods employed by La Vauguyon focused primarily on learning to repeat back what had been taught; there does not seem to have been much - if any - room for actual reflection on the subjects. In those few cases in which the pupil was expected to think about the subject at hand, there would usually be a correct answer. Thus, it appears that emphasis instead was placed on drawing inspiration from or downright reciting others; this could very well have contributed to Louis' later infamous characteristic of indecisiveness. After all, if a pupil is never taught to independently process a situation or concept and reach their own conclusions in childhood, how can they they be expected to do so later on?

The most influential figure during this period in his life was the Duc de La Vauguyon. The education he passed on to his royal pupil famously centered on four virtues: piety, goodness, firmness and justice. Initially these seem to be sound principles to instill in a young prince. However, La Vauguyon himself did not quite live up to one of them in particular: goodness.

The Comtesse de Boigne would later say of Louis XVI that the king had claimed to only habour a feeling of hatred towards one man: La Vauguyon. Whether that was ever actually uttered by the king is impossible to know. What is more certain is that La Vauguyon believed in the old-fashioned type of teaching which included a good deal of discipline and strictness.

Interestingly, considering his avid passion for it, hunting was not included at all in his father's plan for Louis' education. It was not until his death that Louis XV gave his permission for his grandson to begin riding lessons. At this point he was 13 years old. The exercise proved to be an immense help to the dauphin. It strengthened him physically and allowed him a respite from the constraints and pressure placed upon him.

Louis Ferdinand - Louis XVI's father
who heavily influenced his sons'
education

One thing appears to have been remarkably absent from his education considering his status: military strategies. Unlike most of the noblemen's sons whom he interacted with, he had never been to either the École Militaire or the Invalides. Combined with his utter lack of martial aspirations, it is little wonder that Louis XVI never became known as a military commander.

In a similar vein of thought, very little attention appears to have been devoted to the inner workings of the state apparatus. Considering that he was to exercise complete control over the French government, La Vauguyon does not seem to have introduced him to the finer workings of bureaucracy. Likewise, there appears to have been no focus on current challenges faced by France.$ When he ascended the throne in 1774, the harsh regimen of La Vauguyon had imbued the new king with a well-read mind, but had failed to provide him with the tools necessary to rule as an absolute monarch. 

It was not until around 1770, that Louis XV became personally invested in his grandson's education. From then on, he would instruct him himself in various subjects. By this point, Louis Auguste appears to have become a young man with ideas of his own as to how France could be governed. The future king's analytical mind enjoyed the exercise of drawing up various reforms to improve his nation; when he ascended the throne, he would attempt to enact them but largely unsuccessfully. His ideas might have worked had they come a few decades earlier. But by the 1770's and 1780's, France was too divided between the firm adherents of the ancient regime and the followers of the newer Enlightenment. Wherever the new king turned, he seemed to be met with rock solid resistance and a fierce refusal from both sides to even attempt to cooperate. As a result, the king would be plagued by self-doubt and change his mind numerous times.

The times were changing when Louis Auguste received his education and it was very much reflected in it. On one hand, the pupil was taught about the absolute power he was to yield and the god-given right he had to do so. One the other, the Enlightenment was sneaking in with thoughts on liberty, equality and a humanity. It is hardly surprising, then, that Louis XVI would struggle his entire life with the keen balancing act of being an absolute monarch with the virtues of a child of the Enlightenment. Sadly, in the end, it proved to be two doctrines too far removed to be compatible. 

Crime & Punishment: The Thrice-Imprisoned Duke

Exile or imprisonment of wayward noblemen was nothing new in the 17th century. While the former does not sound nearly as dire as the latter, it must be remembered that in the age of the Sun King - and his successors - to be seen was everything. A man's entire career could be unbalanced if the king did not physically see him at court; therefore, in a court living very much by the "out-of-sight, out-of-mind" mentality, exile could be just as punishing as imprisonment.

Yet, there were cases were the king needed the set a sterner example. If not used to punish downright criminal behaviour, imprisonment was a viable option to counteract particularly scandalous behaviour. Few people caused as much scandal at the court of France in the 18th century as Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu.  

The Duc de Richelieu

Armand was born in 1696 into extremely fortunate circumstances. Not only was he the son and heir of a duke, he was also a godson of Louis XIV - thus, his life began remarkably well. As he grew into a young man, it soon became very clear that he had a strong licentious streak and a definite taste for the fairer sex. Sure enough, his attitude would lead him figuratively into trouble - and literally into the Bastille.

Already at the age of 15, Armand was remanded to the notorious prison for the first time. His behaviour had become so displeasing to his family that his own stepfather had requested the king to imprison his son - and the king obliged. Oddly enough, when Armand had joined court he had been much admired and considered both polished and "honest" at play; however, once the Duchesse de Bourgogne began lavishing her affections on him it became too much. It was whispered that the Duchesse's blatant favouritism had caused the king, Madame de Maintenon and the then-reining Duc de Richelieu to convene and intervene before things went any further than court flirtation. 

On 22 April 1711 he was conducted there to reflect on his behaviour. While sulking in prison - with his stepfather's threat of leaving him there hanging overhead - he was visited by his young wife, Anne Catherine de Noailles. There was no love lost between the two as their marriage had only been contracted to distract from the rumours about the Duchesse de Bourgogne. Nevertheless, Anne Catherine took the time to provide him with fresh provisions.

While there, his family clearly hoped to amend his utterly neglected education. The archives of the Bastille show that he was visited not only by his stepfather but by his wife's relatives, too - including the Cardinal de Noailles. His tutors were also allowed access to the young man to further his education. Added to that congregation of relatives were his friends, including the Prince de Conti.

Armand was noted as behaving like a model prisoner, yet he was not released as quickly as he might have hoped for. All through the summer he languished there - although he did receive visits from his friends and family. By October, he suddenly fell gravely ill with the dreaded smallpox and it was feared that he would die. His condition allegedly became so desperate that he receive his final communion on the 3 October. 

After a fortnight, Armand was well enough to wish to leave but if he had thought his near-brush with death would liberate him, he was sorely disappointed. It was not until the middle of June 1712 that he was finally released. By then, he was a year and a half older - but apparently not much wiser.

The Bastille at the time of Richelieu's last imprisonment

The Duc de Fronsac - as he was known before inheriting his father's title - did not return to court immediately. Rather, he went directly to his regiment in Flanders. Military service was all but mandatory for physically fit young noblemen and Armand might well have thought that his reputation could do with some martial glory. To the surprise of some of his contemporaries, Armand was a remarkably adept military commander. Under the guidance of senior officers, he was sent back to Versailles to inform the king of the capture of Douai, amongst others.

His military exploits certainly did raise his name at court and his prestige was further elevated upon the death of his father when he thus became the Duc de Richelieu. The death of Louis XIV followed and while Armand was reported to have wept for the old king, he certainly did not share his austerity - or his view on duelling. 

Louis XIV had been an avid opponent of the age-old "conflict-resolution" that was duelling. Yet, it continued - and would continue for decades - to be a respectable way to settle matters between often less than respectable gentlemen. With the death of Louis XIV the austerity of the court was replaced by a sense of frivolity - much like a house of teenagers when a strict parent went away. This was even more so the case for Armand whose own father had hitherto acted as a counterbalance to his lifestyle (despite his father's own reputation for being somewhat of rake). 

To those of the court who were young, rich and bored, it was truly a remarkable time. As one of the leading noblemen of France, it is hardly surprising that the young Richelieu took (more than) his fair share of the amusement. By February 1716, however, his escapades were once again catching up to him. Rumours spread across Paris that the Duc de Richelieu had fought a very public duel with the Marquis de Gacé over a remark made to a lady at a masked ball. According to Denis Bingham, in "The Bastille", Gacé had been escorting a beautiful lady around when they encountered the duke. Upon their meeting, the marquis is alleged to have warned his fair companion of the fickleness of the duke's affections.

Acting as only young men would they immediately went to settle their differences but did not consider their surroundings. Rather than performing the duel - still illegal at this point - in private, they crossed swords in the open street and was thus observed by numerous people. Naturally, the parliament learned of this and had both hotheads imprisoned in the Bastille. However, despite the parliament's fervent attempts to succeed in finding them guilty it was in vain. Parliament was at loggerheads with the peerage and no one would willingly step forward and witness against a duke. Furthermore, as a peer of the realm, Armand demanded to be tried by his peers - that is, other dukes. Naturally, none of them found him guilty and as both the duke and the marquis denied the duel, there was little for parliament to do. Thus, both men were released and Armand exited the Bastille for the second time in May.

Hitherto, the circumstances that had led the young Duc de Richelieu to the Bastille had been somewhat minor. However, his third - and final - imprisonment was on far more serious charges: conspiracy against the crown. On 29 March 1719, the Duc de Richelieu was arrested on orders of the regent for having participated in what was to become known as the Cellamare Conspiracy.

The Cellamare Conspiracy - named for its main author, the Prince de Cellamare - was a plot against  the Regent, Philippe II d'Orléans, who acted for the young Louis XV. The conspirators aimed at deposing him and having him replaced with the king of Spain, Philip V, who was Louis XV's uncle. Considering that the king was only nine years old in 1719, his recent bouts of ill-health naturally gave rise to grave concerns about the succession. The Spanish court were adamant that should Louis XV die without an heir, the crown of France should go the heirs of the Spanish king - not the Duc d'Orléans.

The Regent - Philippe II d'Orléans

His fellow dukes were incensed at the manner of the arrest - rather than being arrested like a nobleman, he was escorted by archers like a common criminal. Despite the outrage of the peerage, the Regent was not without cause in his suspicions.

Nevertheless, incriminating evidence was found upon his arrest, including correspondence between himself and the Spanish ambassador. He was also known to have been in close contact with Cardinal Alberoni, whose position as a powerful minister in Spain made him a natural agent for the Spanish to use. It was a letter from him to Richelieu that would prove particularly damaging as it openly offered the French duke riches and fortune in return for support, including in the form of handing over the French city of Bayonne to the Spanish.

Due to the nature of the accusation, he was not treated in the same style as before. During his first two stints in the Bastille, he had been given comfortable rooms and servants as well as permission to receive company. Yet, now, his situation was far less pleasant and the fripperies of his former imprisonment were long gone - although he was allowed to keep a single manservant. His new lodgings was an octagonal cell which was only lit by a slit in the solid brick walls. The room was terribly humid - so much so, that it was said that it took only an hour for a person's clothing to be completely permeated.

It should not be underestimated that while he might have had a part in the conspiracy, the Regent had another reason for wanting him locked up: Armand was having an affair with the Regent's daughter, Mademoiselle de Valois. 

Mademoiselle de Valois

It has been claimed that the chief of police, d'Argenson, attempted to lure Richelieu into a trap by resealing the opened letters and giving them to a man by the name of Marin. Marin was passed off as a Spaniard who had come to deliver the duke his mail and would take the opportunity to tempt him with offers of high-ranking military positions, endless fortune etc. However, Richelieu did not take the bait. 

It is probably in some part due to Mademoiselle de Valois that he did not fall for the trap. While it is unlikely that she actively conspired against her father (no proof of this exist nor does it seem plausible) we know from surviving letters that she warned her lover of the fact that the Regent claimed to have incriminating letters in his possession. Armand was therefore able to foresee that something was amiss when the unknown Marin suddenly appeared.

Despite his often cold treatment of his former mistresses, the Duc de Richelieu was immensely popular with the ladies of both court and capital. Once they heard of the conditions of his imprisonment they publicly decried the harshness of the Regent. It was even said that he managed to continue his affair with Mademoiselle de Valois while imprisoned; a feat they supposedly accomplished by disguising the young lady when she came and went. It certainly did not go unnoticed that prior to his release from prison, the young Mademoiselle de Valois was forced to marry the Duke of Modena.

Considering the nature of the circumstance which had landed him in the Bastille for a third time, Armand's outlook was bleak. Conspiracy against the crown - or in this case, the man acting for it - was typically punished with a death sentence. It was therefore to the astonishment of most when the conspirators were let off remarkably easy. Some were exiled to their estates while Armand was released entirely.

Despite his often outrageous lifestyle, the Duc de Richelieu lived a remarkably long life. In 1786, he is said to have gone back to the Bastille - this time voluntarily - for nostalgia's sake. To be sure, the world had changed drastically by then. When he stood on the ramparts and gazed down upon Paris, he could well have reflected that he first entered that very fortress no less than 75 years ago - in a different age, ruled over by a different king. Since then, he had seen two kings die but would (luckily for him) not live to see the fall of the monarchy - or the fortress which had thrice been his prison.